Low-fat, High-added Water Bologna: Effects of Massaging, Preblending, and Time of Addition of Water and Fat on Physical and Sensory Characteristics

The low-fat, high-added water bologna (10% fat-30% added water) had lower values for Instron TPA and tensile strength and higher values for cohesiveness, springiness, and cooking and purge losses than the control (30% fat-10% added water). Massaging of low-fat formulations tended to increase Instron TPA values compared with preblended or nonpreblended low-fat bologna. Low-fat products produced by massaging with all of the added water but none of the added fat had less purge during storage than low-fat treatments that were not massaged. However, none of the low-fat processing regimens produced bologna with sufficient water-binding capacity necessary to maintain cooking losses of less than 6% and purge accumulation less than 2%.     

Flaked Sinew Addition to Low-fat Cooked Salami

Flaked sinew (FS) was added at three levels (7.5, 15, and 22.5%) to low-fat, 20% added water (AW) salamis. A 1.27 cm Comitrol machine head was used to produce large (flaked once) and small (flaked twice) particle sizes. Treatments were preblended (P) and non-preblended (N). P and N controls contained 10% and 20% fat, respectively. Addition of FS decreased (P < 0.05) moisture compared to controls. Yields decreased (P < 0.05) as FS increased regardless of particle size; however, FS addition minimized purge. Lightness increased (P < 0.05) as FS increased in N treatments compared to the low-fat control. Break force/cm² increased (P < 0.05) in P controls compared to N controls. Large FS particle size N treatments had higher (P < 0.05) peak force values than those with small particle size. FS treatments were comparable to high-fat controls in palatability traits.     

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW-FAT, HIGH-ADDED WATER BEEF SAUSAGE EXTENDED WITH COMMON BEAN FLOUR

Beef sausages extended with common bean flour were manufactured using 5 levels of fat and added water (AW) (25% fat /5% AW; 20% fat/10% AW; 15% fat /15% AW; 10% fat/20% AW and 5% fat 25% AW). Decreasing in fat levels with a simultaneous increase in the amount of added water did not affect (P>0.05) pH and ash content, but decreased cooking yields and increased expressible moisture. The lowest L* (lightness) values (p < 0.05) was recorded for the 25% fat/5% AW formulation. High-fat, low-added water batter required more extrusion shear stress than low-fat, high-added water batter. Beef sausage textural characteristics were reduced by replacing added water by fat.     

Formulation and Copping Temperature Effects on Beef Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured using four fat and added water (AW) formulations (10% fat/30% AW; 15%/25%; 20%/20%; 30%/10%) and processed at chopping temperatures 9, 12, or 15°C. The batters were stuffed into cellulose casings, thermally processed, chilled and vacuum-packaged. Frankfurters were analyzed for proximate composition, textural properties and purge. No differences occurred among treatments for processing yield (89.8%± 1.83). Frankfurters chopped to 12°C had the highest (P < 0.05) Kramer peak force values. As expected, purge increased in all treatments as storage time increased (P < 0.05). As AW increased, hardness and cohesiveness decreased and purge increased. Water level and fat reduction were the most critical factors affecting quality.     

Effect of carrageenan level and packaging during ripening on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat fermented sausages produced with olive oil

Eight low-fat fermented sausages were produced with partial replacement of pork backfat with olive oil. The total fat content of the sausages was 10% of which 8% was animal fat and 2% was olive oil. The sausages were produced with two types of carrageenan (ι- and κ-) in four levels (0%, 1%, 2% and 3%). ι-Carrageenan had a better effect (p<0.05) than κ-carrageenan on such characteristics as pH, weight loss and lipid oxidation of the sausages, as well as, on sensory attributes. Low-fat fermented sausages with κ-carrageenan had the same (p>0.05) firmness as high-fat commercial sausages (control). The carrageenan level of 3% negatively affected the firmness of the sausages. In a 2nd experiment, a high-fat control (30% total fat) and three low-fat fermented sausages (10% total fat) with olive oil were produced with three levels of ι-carrageenan (0%, 1% and 2%). Low-fat sausages were vacuum packed for the last two weeks of ripening. ι-Carrageenan added at levels up to 2% had a positive effect (p<0.05) on the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the low-fat fermented sausages. The application of vacuum packaging over last two weeks of ripening improved the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the sausages and resulted in sensory attributes equal to or better than the high-fat controls.     

Chemical, Physical, and Sensory Characterization of Ground Beef Containing 5 to 30 Percent Fat

Ground beef patties containing 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% fat were evaluated raw and after cooking to either 71 or 77°C. Cooking losses were lowest for 5–20% fat patties (24.7-26.0%), intermediate for 25% fat patties (28.9%), and highest for 30% fat patties (32.1%). Low-fat patties (5 and 10%) were firmer in texture, more crumbly at end-of-chewing, less juicy and flavorful, and caused less oily coating of the mouth than 20–30% fat patties. Warner-Bratzler and Lee-Kramer shear forces decreased as fat increased. Instron texture profile analysis also indicated greater peak forces, springiness, and cohesiveness for low-fat patties. Cooking to 77 vs 71°C accentuated differences in palatability between low- and high-fat patties.     

Pork Skin Connective Tissue Gel Utilization in Reduced-Fat Bologna

This study determined temperature (50°, 60°, 70° and 80°C) and time (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0h) factors that enhanced the water binding of pork skin connective tissue (PCT); the functionality of added water (AW, 100–600%, w/w) PCT gels; and attributes of bologna containing 10-30% addition of 100–600% AW PCT gels. Heating (70°C) PCT increased water binding. Gels (100–600% AW) were formed by heating PCT (70°C) for 30 min. Higher AW levels increased (p < 0.05) gel moisture content, while decreasing fat, melting points, collagen content, and hardness. Addition of PCT gels in bologna decreased (p < 0.05) hardness and increased juiciness, indicating the potential of PCT gels as water binders and texture-modifying agents.     

Effects of fat inclusion in starter feeds for dairy calves by mixing increasing levels of a high-fat extruded pellet with a conventional highly fermentable pellet

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of inclusion of an extruded high-fat pellet mixed with a conventional pelleted calf starter on energy intake and performance around weaning in calves. To this end, 75 female Holstein newborn calves (41.0 ± 4.98 kg) were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 iso-nitrogenous solid feed treatments consisting of 4 levels of fat inclusion by mixing a low-fat highly fermentable control pellet with 3 different levels of inclusion of an extruded high-fat pellet [control (100:0), 90:10, 80:20, and 70:30], and a high-fat single pellet (HFSP). The HFSP was equivalent iso-energetic and iso-nitrogenous, although it had almost 1 percentage point difference in fat relative to the 80:20 treatment, to contrast the effect of the dual-component pellet mixture. The extruded high-fat starter feed contained a high proportion of fat (38%), mainly from hydrogenated palm fatty acids. Calves were offered a milk replacer up to 900 g/d, and then pre-weaned at 49 d of age by halving milk allowance until 56 d when calves were weaned. Calves had ad libitum access to the starter diets, chopped straw, and water. Individual milk replacer and starter intakes were recorded daily and BW was determined weekly. A glucose tolerance test was performed at 49 and 84 d of age to evaluate blood glucose homeostasis. Apparent total-tract digestibility was determined from 70 to 75 d of age. Calves on the 90:10 treatment had greatest starter feed intake mainly due to a marked increase in solid feed intake around weaning. Metabolizable energy intake was increased when the extruded pellet was included in the starter. No differences were present in digestibility of ether extract among solid feed treatments. The area under the curve of blood glucose concentration after the glucose tolerance test was greatest in 80:20; intermediate in 70:30, HFSP, and control; and lowest in 90:10 calves. No differences were observed for insulin or other parameters related to blood glucose homeostasis. Delivering dietary fat by mixing an extruded high-fat pellet with a conventional highly fermentable pellet to reach a total fat content of 7% results in increased starter intake, energy intake, and body weight gain until 84 d of age compared with a conventional low-fat pellet, or a single pellet with increased fat content.     

Optimization of salt, olive oil and pectin level for low-fat frankfurters produced by replacing pork backfat with olive oil

Response surface methodology was used to determine the optimum salt level (1.3-2.1%) and pectin level (0.25-1.0%) when olive oil replaced pork backfat (0-100%) for the production of highly acceptable low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). The test ingredients significantly affected (P<0.05) jelly separation of the batter, skin strength, hardness, saltiness, odour and taste and the overall acceptability of the low-fat frankfurters. Batters with high pectin levels recorded the highest (P<0.05) jelly separation. Low-fat frankfurters with high salt levels tended to have very hard skins and increased (P<0.05) saltiness while those with a high pectin level were very soft, tasted like cream and had the lowest (P<0.05) score for odour and taste. The low-fat frankfurters with 1.8-2.1% salt, 0-35% olive oil and 0.25-0.45% pectin had the highest overall acceptability. However, low-fat frankfurters produced with 1.3% salt, 0.25-0.30% pectin and 80-100% olive oil were also acceptable. Such low-fat frankfurters, compared to commercial products, have a 48% lower salt content (from 2.5 to 1.3%) and 66.6% lower fat content (from 30 to 10%), in which 80-100% of the added fat is olive oil. Further research is needed to improve the acceptability of these frankfurters.     

食品级κ-卡拉胶对肥胖小鼠致结肠炎风险及体脂蓄积的影响

目的：探究不同剂量食品级κ-卡拉胶对肥胖小鼠致结肠炎风险及体脂蓄积的影响。方法：分别采用低脂或高脂饲料饲喂雄性C57BL/6Cnc小鼠5 周后,高脂饲料饲喂小鼠的体质量高于低脂饲料饲喂小鼠22%,肥胖模型构建成功。将小鼠分为7 组,包括低脂对照组（NC）、高脂模型组（HFD）和分别饲喂0.05%（H0.05%）、0.5%（H0.5%）、1%（H1%）、2.5%（H2.5%）和5%（H5%）5 种不同剂量卡拉胶的高脂实验组,6 周后处死小鼠,检测结肠炎症和体脂蓄积的相关指标。结果：各组小鼠之间的疾病活动指数、结肠中髓过氧化物酶活力和炎症因子mRNA相对表达量以及结肠生理结构变化均无显著差异（P＞0.05）,H1%和H2.5%组小鼠结肠中前列腺素E2分泌量较HFD组分别下降13.94%和20.75%（P＜0.05）;H5%组小鼠的体质量、体脂率和附睾脂肪细胞半径与HFD组相比分别下降了10.51%、37.67%和31.59%（P＜0.05）。结论：饲料中添加0.05%～5%的食品级κ-卡拉胶对肥胖小鼠无致结肠炎风险,且5%卡拉胶具有抑制体脂蓄积的作用。     

Characteristics of low-and high-fat beef patties: effect of high hydrostatic pressure.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the consequences of applying high pressures (100 and 300 MPa for 5 or 20 min) on characteristics such as water- and fat-binding properties, texture, color, microstructure, and microbiology of low-fat (9.2%) and high-fat (20.3%) beef patties. In nonpressurized patties, the low-fat product exhibited significantly poorer (P < 0.05) binding properties and higher (P < 0.05) Kramer shear force and Kramer energy than did high-fat patties. Although high pressure did not clearly influence the binding properties of low- and high-fat beef patties, it did produce a rise in the Kramer shear force and energy which were more pronounced at 300 MPa. High pressures altered patty color, the extent of alteration depending on fat content, pressure, and pressurizing time. Pressurizing high- and low-fat beef patties at 300 MPa not only produced a lethal effect (P < 0.05) on microorganisms, but caused sublethal damage as well.     

Low-fat, High Added-water Bologna Formulated with Texture-modifying Ingredients

Ingredients incorporated dry into 10% fat and 30% added-water bologna were: DuoFiber®, oat fiber, pea fiber, wheat starch, Firm-tex®, and isolated soy protein. Test bolognas were less firm than the high-fat control but more firm than the low-fat control. Fiber-containing bolognas were more grainy and less juicy than the high-fat control. Low-fat bolognas were darker red than high-fat bologna. DuoFiber and oat fiber had greater cooking losses than the low-fat control, but purge was reduced by all test ingredients, particularly Firm-tex. Lower vacuum level in packages also resulted in less purge. Test ingredients had beneficial effects on properties of low-fat, high added-water bologna, thus providing a way to alter product characteristics.     

Sodium lactate and protective culture effects on quality characteristics and shelf-life of low-fat frankfurters produced with olive oil

Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein) were produced with olive oil and four levels of sodium lactate (0, 1, 2, 3%). The level of sodium lactate affected (p < 0.05) moisture and ash content, processing yield, skin strength and saltiness of low-fat frankfurters. Sodium lactate at 2% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters with olive oil. It had the highest score for flavour intensity and did not negatively affect skin strength, lextural and sensory properties or the colour of frankfurters. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein) with olive oil, produced with 0% and 2% sodium lactate (SL) and protective culture (PC) and stored under vacuum at 4 °C, were compared with high-fat frankfurters (27% all animal fat, 11% protein). Low-fat frankfurters with olive oil had higher (p < 0.05) moisture and lower (p < 0.05) brine concentration than high-fat frankfurters. PC extended shelf-life of low-fat frankfurters with olive oil from 3 to 4 weeks. 2% SL kept the pH of frankfurters almost constant and extended shelf-life up to 6 weeks compared with 3 and 4 weeks shelf-life for low-fat and high-fat control frankfurters, respectively.     

The effects of carrageenan and pectin on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters

Effects of carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) and carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) with a pectin gel (20%) on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters were evaluated in comparison to a high-fat control (HFC) and a low-fat control (LFC). While low-fat frankfurters had <3.0% fat, 73-76% moisture, 13-14% protein, HFC had 17% fat, 59% moisture, and 14% protein. A reduction of 50-59% in cholesterol was determined in low fat beef frankfurters as compared to HFC (P<0.05). Better process yield and emulsion stability, and less purge were observed with increasing carrageenan concentration. Treatment groups showed higher water holding capacity (WHC) than LFC, and lower WHC than HFC (P<0.05). With increasing carrageenan concentration, WHC increased and penetrometer value decreased in low-fat frankfurters.     

Effect of fat level and partial replacement of pork backfat with olive oil on processing and quality characteristics of fermented sausages

Six formulations of dry fermented sausages were produced in three replications with three initial fat levels (30, 20 and 10%) and two levels (0 and 20%) of pork backfat replacing olive oil. After 4 weeks of fermentation and ripening the fat content of the treatments with 30, 20 and 10% fat level ranged from 38.86 to 43.60%, 25.56 to 26.86% and 19.01 to 20.14%, respectively. Fat level affected (P<0.05) the weight losses, the chemical composition, the Gram −ve bacterial count, the lightness, the texture and the appearance of fermented sausages. Replacing 20% of pork backfat by olive oil affected (P<0.05) the lightness and yellowness of sausages. Fat-reduced sausages without olive oil and low-fat sausages with olive oil had the highest score for odour and taste. However, the appearance of fat-reduced sausages was just acceptable while that of low-fat sausages was unacceptable, because the surface was intensively wrinkled and case hardening had developed. Further research is needed to improve the appearance of these sausages.     

Antioxidative Fat Replacer and High-Monounsaturated Oil Used for Pork Fat in Precooked Sausage

One high-fat and four low-fat pork sausage formulations were made: P30 with 30% pork fat (P); P11-W with 11% P and 10% added water (W); P11-WC with 11% P, 9.5% W and 0.5% carrageenan (C); Pso11-WC with 6% P plus 5% high-oleic sunflower oil (So), 9.5% W and 0.5% C; and Pso11-WGcf with 6% P plus 5% So, 7.0% W and 3% defatted glandless cottonseed flour (Gcf). Sausage patty cooking yield was highest for P11-WC and Pso11-WGcf. TBA values for refrigerated precooked patties were lowest for Pso11-WGcf, whereas carrageenan had a prooxidant effect in low-fat patties made with all-pork fat. The oil had no adverse effects on lipid oxidation and sensory properties of low-fat patties with C. The monounsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio increased by 53–71% in the So-containing low-fat patties when compared to P11-W and P11-WC patties.     

Microwave Cooking Properties of Ground Pork Patties as Affected by Various Fat Levels

ABSTRACT: Ground pork patties were processed from pork hams to achieve fat levels of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%. Each patty was cooked in a microwave oven to 75 °C from a thawed state. As fat levels increased, cooking time decreased. Total cooking loss and drip loss were highest for 25% fat patties and lowest for 5% fat patties. High-fat patties (20% and 25%) had greater reductions in dia than did 5% to 15% fat patties, but had less change in patty thickness. Shear force values decreased as fat levels increased. Visual evaluations also indicated a greater presence of air pockets in high-fat patties. In raw patties, low-fat samples were darker (had lower L * values) and were redder (had higher a * values) than patties with more fat. However, these differences were relatively smaller when the patties were cooked. As fat levels increased, flavor, tenderness, juiciness, and oiliness ratings increased. These differences were not as apparent when comparing among low-fat patties or high-fat patties. Keyword: microwave, cooking, fat, pork patty     

EFFECT OF CARRAGEENAN ON PROCESSING AND QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS

Three types of carrageenan (K, I, K+I) × 4 levels (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0%) were evaluated with a complete factorial design to characterize the effect of carrageenans on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). l-Carrageenan at 0.5–1.0% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters. It reduced (P<0.05) the hardness of the skin and contributed to a softer (P<0.05) product and higher overall acceptability. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat) manufactured with I-carrageenan (IC) or in combination with finely ground toasted bread (TB), isolated soy protein (ISP) and pork skin (PSK), were compared to high-fat (27% fat, 11% protein) and to low-fat (9% fat, 13% protein) control frankfurters prepared with 3.5% potato starch (PS), as well as with commercial frankfurters (25% fat, 11.6% protein, 4.5% starch). Frankfurters with IC had higher (P<0.05) moisture, softer (P<0.05) skin and the highest (P<0.05) separation of gelatin. However, textural properties and overall acceptability were similar (P>0.05) to commercial and high-fat control frankfurters. Addition of TB had no significant effect. Use of ISP and PSK improved (P<0.05) the water-binding capacity but negatively affected the overall acceptability of frankfurters.     

蛋清基脂肪替代品对冰淇淋的理化性质及微观结构的影响

利用蛋清基脂肪替代品降低高脂冰淇淋中的脂肪,开发低脂冰淇淋。通过理化性质测量、感官评价和微观结构的观察,综合分析脂肪替代品在冰淇淋中的代脂肪效果。结果表明：脂肪替代率15%时,冰淇淋的气泡和脂肪总聚集数量多,膨胀率提高,从54.9%增大到72.6%,而融化率降低,从48.32%降低到24.3%。在脂肪替代率25%～30%时,冰淇淋的口感和接受度降低。因此,脂肪替代率15%时,冰淇淋的可接受度最佳。     

Effect of the ripening time under vacuum and packaging film permeability on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat fermented sausages

The effect of vacuum ripening of low-fat fermented sausages packaged in films with different permeabilities on their microbiological, physicochemical and sensorial characteristics was studied. High-fat control sausages were produced with 30% initial fat and low-fat sausages with 10% initial fat. The low-fat sausages were separated into: (a) non-packaged (control) and (b) packaged under vacuum on 7th, 12th and 17th day of processing, remaining under vacuum during the ripening period for 21, 16 and 11 days, respectively, in three different oxygen (100, 38 and ? 5 cm³/m²/24 h/1 atm) and water vapour (4.5, <2.5 and 1 g/m² 24 h) permeability plastic bags. Vacuum packaging reduced (p < 0.05) the weight loss, the hardness and extent of lipid oxidation in the sausages, increased (p < 0.05) their lightness, but had no effect (p > 0.05) on the redness, compared to the control sausages. Packaging low-fat fermented sausages under vacuum for the last 11 days of ripening in packaging film with high permeability increased (p < 0.05) the lactic acid bacteria count. The same product packaged in film with medium permeability had a higher (p < 0.05) Micrococcaceae count and the same (p > 0.05) hardness and overall acceptability as the high-fat control sausages. A ripening time of 11 days and the medium packaging film permeability were the most appropriate conditions for the vacuum packaging of low-fat fermented sausages.