Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity.

Socioemotional selectivity theory claims that the perception of time plays a fundamental role in the selection and pursuit of social goals. According to the theory, social motives fall into 1 of 2 general categories–those related to the acquisition of knowledge and those related to the regulation of emotion. When time is perceived as open-ended, knowledge-related goals are prioritized. In contrast, when time is perceived as limited, emotional goals assume primacy. The inextricable association between time left in life and chronological age ensures age-related differences in social goals. Nonetheless, the authors show that the perception of time is malleable, and social goals change in 20–83 yr olds when time constraints are imposed. The authors argue that time perception is integral to human motivation and suggest potential implications for multiple subdisciplines and research interests in social, developmental, cultural, cognitive, and clinical psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory.

Explored 2 hypotheses derived from socioemotional selectivity theory: (1) Selective reductions in social interaction begin in early adulthood, and (2) emotional closeness to significant others increases rather than decreases in adulthood even when rate reductions occur. Transcribed interviews with 28 women and 22 men from the Child Guidance Study, conducted over 34 yrs, were reviewed and rated for frequency of interaction, satisfaction with the relationship, and degree of emotional closeness in 6 types of relationships. Interaction frequency with acquaintances and close friends declined from early adulthood on. Interaction frequency with spouses and siblings increased across the same time period, and emotional closeness increased throughout adulthood in relationships with relatives and close friends. Findings suggest that individuals begin narrowing their range of social partners long before old age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and motives for volunteering: Testing hypotheses derived from socioemotional selectivity theory.

Following a meta-analysis of the relations between age and volunteer motives (career, understanding, enhancement, protective, making friends, social, and values), the authors tested hypotheses derived from socioemotional selectivity theory regarding the effects of age on these volunteer motives. The Volunteer Functions Inventory was completed by 523 volunteers from 2 affiliates of the International Habitat for Humanity. Multiple regression analyses revealed, as predicted, that as age increases, career and understanding volunteer motivation decrease and social volunteer motivation increases. Contrary to expectations, age did not contribute to the prediction of enhancement, protective, and values volunteer motivations and the relation between age and making friends volunteer motivation was nonlinear. The results were discussed in the context of age-differential and age-similarity perspectives on volunteer motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maltreatment on young children's socioemotional development: An attachment theory perspective.

The effects of maltreatment on early childhood development were examined in three domains suggested by attachment theory: relationships with novel adults, effectance motivation, and cognitive maturity. Three samples of children between 4 and 8 years of age were studied: 93 maltreated children, 67 demographically matched nonmaltreated children from families receiving welfare, and 30 nonmaltreated children from middle-class families. Children's scores on 10 dependent variables across the three domains of interest were factor analyzed, and two theoretically meaningful factors emerged. Maltreated children scored lower than welfare children, who in turn scored lower than middle-class children, on a factor measuring secure readiness to learn in the company of novel adults. Maltreated children and welfare children also scored higher than middle-class children, but did not significantly differ from each other, on a factor measuring outer-directedness. Results indicate that, during early childhood, maltreatment disrupts a dynamic balance between the motivation to establish safe, secure relationships with adults and the motivation to venture out to explore the world in a competency-promoting fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social exchange theory: An integrative approach to social conformity.

Theoretical and research studies of social conformity are reviewed and integrated through a revised social exchange model. The concept of utility is discarded from the basic economic model in favor of a revealed preference, and this approach is then applied to the existing work on social conformity and approval. The behavior of Ss in conformity and approval studies is assumed to reflect a preference in the manner done in economics. Predictions made from the exchange model are found to be consistent with the existing knowledge about conformity. It is concluded that exchange theory provides a useful vehicle for data integration and generation of new hypotheses about social conformity. The model allows for the process of social conformity to be considered in dynamic terms, treating the influence source and influenced person simultaneously. (7 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of least-squares regression modeling of catastrophe theory.

Although catastrophe theory appears to have substantial heuristic value in many areas of psychology, its acceptance has, to some extent, been hampered by the lack of a well-developed analytic framework. Two recent articles by S. J. Guastello (1987, 1988) suggest that a change-score least-squares regression model provides a method for testing catastrophe theory models. This article reviews these regression analysis procedures. The problems in the approach are detailed, then demonstrated with computer-generated data sets. The results show that such regression approaches cannot adequately distinguish between data that has arisen from a true catastrophe model and data from a true linear model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive mechanisms of social anxiety reduction: An examination of specificity and temporality.

Cognitive theories posit that exposure-based treatments exert their effect on social anxiety by modifying judgmental biases. The present study provides a conservative test of the relative roles of changes in judgmental biases in governing social anxiety reduction and addresses several limitations of previous research. Longitudinal, within-subjects analysis of data from 53 adults with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) social phobia diagnosis revealed that reductions in probability and cost biases accounted for significant variance in fear reduction achieved during treatment. However, whereas the reduction in probability bias resulted in fear reduction, the reduction in cost bias was merely a consequence of fear reduction. A potential implication is that exposure-based treatments for social anxiety might focus more attention on correcting faulty appraisals of social threat occurrence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Satisfaction with social support and depressive symptoms: A panel analysis.

The literature suggests that persons who are dissatisfied with the amount of social support that has been provided to them may subsequently suffer from psychological disorder. At the same time, there is evidence that individuals who initially suffer from emotional disorder may consequently be less satisfied with their social support systems than may persons who enjoy better mental health. The purpose of this study was to test these competing hypotheses with panel data from a community survey of older adults. The findings indicate that changes in satisfaction with support tend to precede changes in depressive symptoms. A number of issues in the analysis of longitudinal data are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategies to cope with negative social identity: Predictions by social identity theory and relative deprivation theory.

Predictions by social identity theory (SIT) and relative deprivation theory (RDT) concerning preferences for strategies to cope with a negative in-group status position were tested. The focus of the present research was a comparison of the theories regarding their differential patterns of prediction. For this purpose, a natural sample within a specific historical situation was investigated: East Germans after the German unification. First, the predictive power of SIT and RDT variables was tested separately. In a second step, a possible integration of the theories was addressed. Combining the SIT variables and RDT variables led to an integrated model indicating a differential pattern of prediction for intergroup strategies. The RDT components explained the collective responses, whereas SIT constructs were related to individual strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived parental social support and academic achievement: An attachment theory perspective.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 66(4) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10478-001). This article, which appeared in the Personality and Individual Differences section was accepted for publication by Guest Editor Irwin Sarason. We wish to thank Professor Sarason for his help and to apologize for our oversight in not acknowledging this contribution.] Tested the extent to which parental social support predicted college GPA among undergraduates. A sample of 418 undergraduates completed the Social Provisions Scale—Parent Form (C. E. Cutrona; see record 1990-01422-001) and measures of family conflict and achievement orientation. American College Testing (ACT) Assessment Program college entrance exam scores (American College Testing Program, 1986) and GPA were obtained from the university registrar. Parental social support, especially reassurance of worth, predicted college GPA when controlling for academic aptitude (ACT scores), family achievement orientation, and family conflict. Support from parents, but not from friends or romantic partners, significantly predicted GPA. Results are interpreted in the context of adult attachment theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications.

Psychological research involving scale construction has been hindered considerably by a widespread lack of understanding of coefficient alpha and reliability theory in general. A discussion of the assumptions and meaning of coefficient alpha is presented. This discussion is followed by a demonstration of the effects of test length and dimensionality on alpha by calculating the statistic for hypothetical tests with varying numbers of items, numbers of orthogonal dimensions, and average item intercorrelations. Recommendations for the proper use of coefficient alpha are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing variation in alcohol outcome expectancies across environmental context: An examination of the situational-specificity hypothesis.

Using an in vivo manipulation, this study examined whether alcohol outcome expectancies (AOEs) vary across environmental settings. Two hundred twenty-one undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions in which environmental context (an on-campus bar vs. a laboratory) and instructed phase of intoxication ("just enough to begin to feel intoxicated" vs. "too much to drink") were manipulated. AOEs were assessed with a revised version of the Effects of Alcohol Scale (L. Southwick, C. Steele, A. Marlatt, & M. Lindell, 1981). Compared with participants tested in the laboratory, individuals exposed to the on-campus bar expected greater alcohol-related stimulation/perceived dominance and pleasurable disinhibition. Women expected more behavioral impairment during the latter stage of intoxication. These findings highlight the importance of ecologically valid research in this area, as well as cue-exposure assessment and treatment approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Satisfaction with social support during crisis: Intimacy and self-esteem as critical determinants.

Satisfaction with social support was studied longitudinally in 113 17–40 yr old Israeli women following the outcome of both normal and medically complicated pregnancies (delivery by cesarean section, delivery of an infant weighing under 2 kg, or spontaneous abortion before the 3rd trimester). Ss were interviewed concerning the size of their social networks, the number of friends and family members in their networks, perceived intimacy with spouse, and perceived intimacy with at least 1 friend and 1 family member. Included in the interviews were measures of self-esteem, intimacy, social network structure, and satisfaction with support. Findings show that greater intimacy with spouse and with friends was related to greater satisfaction with support received during the crisis period. Intimate ties contributed to satisfaction with support independent of self-esteem, social network parameters, and type of pregnancy outcome. Social network parameters and pregnancy outcome were not related to satisfaction with support. Among Ss low in self-esteem, greater intimacy with family was related to lower satisfaction with support if the Ss lacked intimate ties with spouse or a friend. Clinical and social psychological theories regarding reaction to aid are discussed. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-efficacy theory: Implications for social facilitation and social loafing.

Two experiments indicate that the areas of social facilitation and social loafing are complementary and can be conceptualized in terms of self-efficacy theory. In Exp 1, efficacy expectancies were manipulated by false performance feedback, and outcome expectancies were manipulated by 3 group conditions (alone, coaction, and collective). In Exp 2, efficacy expectancies developed spontaneously while participants performed easy or difficult tasks, and outcome expectancies were manipulated by 3 evaluative conditions (alone, evaluation, and no evaluation). Consistent with social facilitation research, high efficacy evaluated participants performed better than alone participants, whereas low-efficacy evaluated participants performed worse than alone participants. Consistent with social loafing research, high efficacy nonevaluated participants performed worse than evaluated participants, whereas low-efficacy nonevaluated participants performed better than evaluated participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward persons with a disability: An examination of demographic factors, social context, and specific disability.

Attempted to replicate the findings of S. A. Grand et al (see record 1983-08199-001) concerning the multidimensional nature of attitudes toward persons with a disability, and examined the relationship between attitudes toward persons with a disability and salient demographic and contact variables. 214 university faculty and staff (aged 19–73 yrs) completed a disability social relationship scale that examined attitudes about members of specific disability groups (people with cerebral palsy, epileptics, amputees, and blind people) in various situations (work, dating, marriage), and a demographic data form assessing age, education level, SES, gender, and religion. Results support the multidimensionality hypothesis, and a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that increased contact with persons with a disability, younger age, and higher levels of education were the best predictors of more favorable scores. However, demographic variables accounted for limited variance in attitudes. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The his and hers of prosocial behavior: An examination of the social psychology of gender.

Prosocial behavior consists of behaviors regarded as beneficial to others, including helping, sharing, comforting, guiding, rescuing, and defending others. Although women and men are similar in engaging in extensive prosocial behavior, they are different in their emphasis on particular classes of these behaviors. The specialty of women is prosocial behaviors that are more communal and relational, and that of men is behaviors that are more agentic and collectively oriented as well as strength intensive. These sex differences, which appear in research in various settings, match widely shared gender role beliefs. The origins of these beliefs lie in the division of labor, which reflects a biosocial interaction between male and female physical attributes and the social structure. The effects of gender roles on behavior are mediated by hormonal processes, social expectations, and individual dispositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of age and cognitive test performance across job complexity and occupational types.

In this study, job complexity and occupational type were examined as potential moderators of the relationship between age and cognitive ability. Data include general, verbal, and numerical ability scores for 21,646 individuals in the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) data base. These individuals comprised 102 unique samples and 10 major occupational groups. Differences in the relationship between age and cognitive ability test scores were observed across occupational types but not for different levels of job complexity. Findings were discussed in terms of a need for research that examines specific life and work experiences and how such experiences may influence an individual's cognitive abilities across the life span. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Premorbid social competence construct generalizability across ethnic groups: Path analyses with two premorbid social competence components.

Studied the stability across ethnic groups of interrelations among 5 variables (education, age at 1st psychiatric hospitalization, current age, alcoholism symptom severity, and behavioral adjustment while hospitalized) using path analysis. 24 male Mexican Americans, mean age 39.8 yrs, and 24 male Anglo Americans, mean age 47.1 yrs, were studied. Behavioral adjustment was determined with the MACC Behavioral Adjustment Scale. Certain findings involving 4 variables were consistent with theoretical expectations for the Anglo-American group but were reversed in the Mexican-American group. Methodological and theoretical implications are presented. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drive theory of social facilitation: Twelve years of theory and research.

Reviews research on social facilitation since 1965. It is concluded that the drive-theory analysis proposed by R. B. Zajonc in 1965 still provides the best overall theoretical framework for explaining social facilitation, but that N. B. Cottrell's (1968, 1972) elaboration, which emphasizes learned drives as the motivational basis of the phenomenon, appears justified. The main tenet of the drive-theory approach, that the presence of conspecific organisms is arousing, has received additional support from studies not based on Zajonc's Hullian assumptions. The secondary motive state associated with social facilitation is probably aversive in nature and is describable in terms such as learned fear of failure, anxiety, or anticipatory frustration. Alternative explanations for social facilitation based on current cognitive views of behavior may ultimately shed light on important mediating processes but as yet do not possess the economy of constructs offered by the drive-theory approach. (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)