Gender differences in interaction style and influence.

Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effect of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although women were more easily influenced, this effect was mediated by the partners' behavior. Ss were influenced more by a partner who agreed with them and less by one who disagreed. Path analyses and ANCOVAS revealed that Ss' sex predicted the partners' behavior toward them, which in turn predicted the sex difference in influence. When instructed to be influential, Ss increased disagreements, but only with male partners. Results indicate that the masculine interaction style used when interacting with men is less effective than the feminine style used when interacting with women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth-order and social-experience differences in infant–peer interaction.

Compared peer social interaction of 32 firstborn (F) and 32 second-born infants who have a preschool-aged sibling. F Ss were more likely to interact with one another, and these interactions involved longer turn-taking sequences. F Ss were also more likely to approach, gesture, use objects socially, and engage in agonistic acts with one another. In addition, differences associated with exposure to other children were found in social interaction. F Ss who were frequently around preschoolers were less likely to interact with a peer than were F Ss who were rarely with preschoolers. Frequent exposure to toddlers was also related to fewer and briefer interactions with peers. The effect of experience with infant peers, however, was in the opposite direction: Ss with age-mate experience were more successful at initiating interactions with infant peers than were their less experienced counterparts. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender differences in interaction style and influence": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. L. Carli (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989, [Apr] Vol 56[4], 565–576). On page 567, the 3rd sentence in the Procedure section should read, "Half of the subjects were paired with same-sex partners and half with opposite-sex partners, resulting in 16 female pairs, 16 male pairs, and 32 mixed-sex pairs.' On page 568, the equation at the bottom of the left-hand column should read as follows: (Mfs?–?Mms?–?Mfm?+?Mmm)/((2MSe?+ &2MS′e)(1/n))?. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1989-25837-001.) Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effects of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are shy people reluctant to ask for help?

Examined the help-seeking behaviors of shy and not-shy men and women. In Study 1, Ss worked on an impossible task in the presence of a male or female confederate whom they were told had just successfully completed the task. Shy Ss asked for help no less frequently than did not-shy Ss overall, but they did seek help less frequently from opposite-sex confederates than from same-sex confederates. In Study 2, shy and not-shy men and women were required to call a man and a woman and ask them to complete a questionnaire. All respondents agreed to return the questionnaire. However, when shy Ss (compared with not-shy Ss) called opposite-sex respondents, fewer of the questionnaires were actually returned. When making their calls, shy Ss sounded somewhat less warm and confident than did not-shy Ss, and they also spoke less fluently. Fluency, in turn, predicted response rate for the shy subjects calling respondents of the opposite sex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex roles and leadership revisited.

Replicated and extended E. I. Megargee's (1969) earlier work to reassess the part that sex roles play in the assumption of leadership. Megargee's original study indicated that women who had superior leadership ability failed to assert their sex roles in the presence of males in both masculine and neutral task situations. In the present Study 1, the Gough Dominance (DO) Scale was administered to 700 undergraduates; in Study 2, the scale was administered to 500 undergraduates. Ss were grouped into high- and low-DO pairs. Results of Study 1, which employed a masculine task, reveal that despite recent consciousness-raising, high-DO women paired with low-DO men were still significantly less likely to assume a leadership role than high-DO men or high-DO women who were paired with partners of the same sex. Study 2 used a task stereotypically associated with women to determine if behavior could be altered by task manipulation. Results indicate that the Magargee effect was specific to task; a majority of the high-DO Ss in all pairs took the leadership role. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender, language, and influence.

Mixed- and same-sex dyads were observed to examine effects of gender composition on language and of language on gender differences in influence. Ss discussed a topic on which they disagreed. Women were more tentative than men, but only in mixed sex dyads. Women who spoke tentatively were more influential with men and less influential with women. Language had no effect on how influential men were. In a 2nd study, 120 Ss listened to an audiotape of identical persuasive messages presented either by a man or a woman, half of whom spoke tentatively. Female speakers who spoke tentatively were more influential with male Ss and less influential with female Ss than those who spoke assertively. Male speakers were equally influential in each condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling deidentification.

Uses "sibling deidentification" to refer to a commonplace phenomenon (i.e., judgments of being different from one's sibling. The present study examined its possible determinants and attempted to clarify what Ss mean when they judge siblings to be different. Results on alike-different judgments elicited from 383 undergraduates, 203 from 3-child and 180 from 2-child families, show significantly higher levels of deidentification for first pairs, firstborn S judging 2nd born sibling (S1Sb2) or 2nd-born S judging first sibling (S2Sb1), than for jump pairs (S1Sb3 or S3Sb1), with intermediate levels for 2nd pairs (S2Sb3 or S3Sb2). There were no significant within-pair effects of birth order, sex of S, and spacing. For 3-child first pairs, same-sex siblings deidentified significantly more than opposite-sex siblings did. Results on semantic differentials indicate that when Ss judged their sibling different they meant that they polarized on signficantly more personality dimensions than did those judging alike. Findings in conjunction with identification theory suggest that deidentification may be a mechanism for resolving sibling rivalry, a Cain Complex. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Help-seeking and attractiveness in cross-sex dyads.

Attempted to extend A. Nadler's (see record 1981-25817-001) finding that female Ss asked for significantly less help from a fictitiously paired attractive (vs unattractive) female co-worker by investigating whether the same relationship between physical attractiveness and unwillingness to ask for help would occur in cross-sex dyads. 24 male and 24 female undergraduates trying to solve a very difficult task could request help from a fictitiously paired attractive vs unattractive co-worker of the opposite sex. Findings indicate that, as predicted, both males and females asked for significantly less help from their cross-sex attractive partner than from the unattractive one. Results suggest that one's same-sex interactions, as in the Nadler study, or opposite-sex interactions may be modified as a function of one's concerns with impression management. (French abstract) (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inferred sex differences in status as a determinant of gender stereotypes about social influence.

In 3 experiments, 470 male and 425 female university students read a scenario describing a communicator's attempt to influence a recipient and then judged how much influence would occur. The scenarios in Exp I described a man trying to influence a woman or a woman trying to influence a man. For scenarios in which job titles were omitted, Ss believed that women held lower status jobs than men and that women were more likely to comply behaviorally with men than men were with women. For scenarios in which job titles were included, Ss' beliefs about compliance were based on job status rather than the sex of the stimulus persons. In Exp II, scenarios in which job titles were omitted described an influence attempt between same- or opposite-sex persons. Both the communicator's and the recipient's sex were found to contribute to the greater perceived compliance of women to men (vs men to women). In Exp III, this perceived sex difference in compliance occurred only when the communicator and recipient were employed by the same organization. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Desired change in couples: Gender differences and effects on communication.

Using a sample (N = 453) drawn from a representative sampling frame of couples who are married or living together and have a 3 to 7 year-old child, this study investigates (a) the amount and specific areas of change desired by men and women, (b) the relation between relationship adjustment and desired change; and (c) the ways in which partners negotiate change. On the Areas of Change Questionnaire, women compared with men, wanted greater increases in their partners’ emotional and companionate behaviors, instrumental support, and parenting involvement; men wanted greater increases in sex. Using the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (Kenny, 1996), both men’s and women’s relationship adjustment predicted desired change (i.e., actor effects), over and above the effects of their partners’ adjustment (i.e., partner effects); partner effects were not significant. Each couple was also observed discussing the man’s and the woman’s top desired change area. Both men and women behaved more positively during the partner-initiated conversations than during their own-initiated conversations. Women, compared with men, were more negative in their own and in their partners’ conversations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some factors affecting the amount of information sought about others.

This investigation examined the effects upon the amount of information that Ss would seek about others of: (a) the sex of the S; (b) whether the information was all positive, all negative, or ambivalent; and (c) the sex of the other person. The results indicate that female Ss seek more information than males, that Ss seek more ambivalent than univalent information, and that less information is sought when the other person is a woman than when the other is a man. The valence of the final impression was clearly related to the valence of the information that Ss received, although male Ss formed a highly negative impression of women who were described in ambivalent terms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of subject and experimenter sex with the body percept in verbal concept identification.

Classified 64 male and 64 female undergraduates as having a high or low body percept based on Holtzman Inkblot Technique scores. Ss were then given a task involving verbal concept identification of body parts. Variables measured included verbal concept identification, talk time, number of responses, intelligence, and abstract ability. The Es were 1 male and 1 female, each of whom tested 1/2 of Ss of each sex. When paired with Es of the same sex, high percept Ss solved the problem sooner and talked more. The opposite occurred for low percept scorers. Solution also came more quickly for high percept Ss. (38 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex of authority role models and achievement by men and women: Leadership performance and recognition.

Investigated whether performance, for both sexes, is conditioned by expectations for them, with expectations being at least partly defined by same-sex role models. 276 undergraduates were exposed to all-male, all-female, or mixed-authority role models and then participated in a 4-person mixed-sex discussion. Vicarious cultural experience of authority models was represented by videotaped reenactments of TV commercials. Ss viewed either 4 traditional commercials showing a man as authority and woman as subordinate, or 4 reversed-role versions in which the male and female actors switched roles in the same scenarios. Personally observed authority models were represented by the experimenter, who supervised the discussion. Sex of authority in the commercials and sex of experimenter were crossed in a factorial design. In the all-male authority condition, men and women performed equally (as measured by talking time and number of substantive content suggestions), but recognized only the men as leaders in postdiscussion evaluation questionnaires. In the all-female authority condition, men and women also performed equally, and, in addition, they also received equal leadership recognition. In the 2 mixed-authority conditions, men objectively outperformed women. The data show that recognition is not a direct function of performance for either sex but is influenced by the evaluators' expectations, which are partly defined by sex of authority role models in the social environment. (103 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of promotion fairness and promotion candidates' qualifications.

A sample of 336 undergraduate students (168 women and 168 men) read summaries of fictitious court cases prompted by 1 of 4 possible promotion decisions in 1 of 3 different jobs or occupations. Ss assessed the fairness of the promotion decision and the qualifications of the promoted and nonpromoted employees. Women and men perceived promotion of a member of the opposite sex instead of a member of their own sex as significantly less fair than any of the other 3 possible promotion decisions (opposite sex instead of opposite sex, same sex instead of same sex, or same sex instead of opposite sex). Perceptions of promotion candidates' qualifications, however, were not influenced by sex, job sex type (masculine vs sex neutral), or promotion decision or by any interactions of these variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation.

According to gender role theory, women's greater emotional intensity than men's stems from normative expectations for sex differences that arise as a result of men's and women's social roles. In Exp 1, endorsement of normative expectations for sex differences was associated with sex differences in Ss' own emotions: To the extent that they endorsed stereotypical differences between men and women, female Ss reported personally experiencing emotions of greater intensity and male Ss reported experiencing emotions of lesser intensity. The 2nd study manipulated expectations for responsiveness while Ss viewed a series of emotion-inducing slides. When instructions rendered normative expectations comparable for men and women, no sex differences were obtained in emotion self-reports. Furthermore, women evidenced more extreme electromyograph physiological responding than men, suggesting general sex differences in emotion that are not limited to self-report. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d?=?18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the sex role behavior scale-1: A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests.

Describes the construction of a preliminary Sex Role Behavior Scale (SRBS-1), a 160 item self-report inventory comprising male-valued, female-valued, and sex-specific interest/behavior scales. The relationship of the SRBS-1 to measures of sex role attitudes and personality traits is also examined. An initial pool of 239 items describing recreational activities, vocational interests, social and dating behaviors, and marital behaviors thought to be more typical of one sex than the other was administered to 528 college men and women. One-third of the Ss compared the typical young adult man and woman on the items, one-third rated the desirability of the items for men and women, and the remaining third rated themselves. Typical and desirability ratings were used to select items that were male valued (more typical of one sex and desirable only for that sex). The findings suggest that male- and female-valued behaviors form a dualism and are actually positively correlated. Additional analyses showed that individuals with nontraditional sex role attitudes or personality trait organization were somewhat less conventionally sex typed in their behaviors and interests. However, these relationships tended to be small, suggesting a general independence of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social anxiety, sexual behavior, and contraceptive use.

170 female and 90 male college students completed a questionnaire that provided information regarding their sexual experience, knowledge, and attitudes; their self-evaluations on dimensions related to sexuality; and their level of heterosocial anxiety (anxiety experienced in social interactions with members of the other sex). Compared with Ss low in heterosocial anxiety, highly anxious Ss were less sexually experienced, engaged in sexual activity less frequently, had fewer sexual partners, were less likely to have engaged in oral sex, expressed a higher degree of apprehension about sex, and had a somewhat higher incidence of sexual dysfunctions. In addition, low socially anxious women tended to use the pill, whereas highly anxious women preferred the condom. High and low heterosocially anxious Ss also differed on self-ratings related to their sexuality but did not differ in their attitudes or knowledge regarding sex. Results are discussed in terms of the cognitive, behavioral, and affective concomitants of social anxiety. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)