Assessment and applications of wind energy in Jordan

A technical and economic assessment has been made of the generation of electricity using windmills located at three most promising potential wind sites in Jordan: Ras Muneef (RA), Mafraq (MF), and Aqaba (AQ). The assessment was made for two different systems, one using a relatively large single windmill and the other using 25 small windmills arranged in a wind farm. The power output of each system at each site was determined, and the electricity-generating costs in each case were also determined and compared with the generating costs of generating electricity using steam or gas turbines, furnished by the Jordanian Electricity Authority (JEA).Finally, the possibility of water pumping from 30-m and 100-m deep wells using a windmill is investigated and the quantities of water pumping from these depths at each of the three sites are given.     

Assessment of wind energy potential for selected areas in Jordan

This paper presents a technical assessment of wind power potential for seven locations in Jordan using statistical analysis to determine the wind characteristic based on the measured wind data. Rayleigh distribution is used to model the monthly average data and used to estimate the wind power in the selected locations. Energy calculations, capacity factors and cost of wind energy production were determined for the selected locations with wind machines of different sizes ranging between 1.65 MW and 3 MW. The quantitative estimates of the technical and economic potential are presented graphically. Rayleigh parameter is adjusted to the hub height using one seventh power law to estimate the power output of the machine. The energy cost analyses show that all selected sites have high economic potential with unit cost less than $0.04/kWh of electricity. The lowest unit cost per kWh is obtained by using GE 2.5 MW at Tafila site. Finally, the results of this study reveal that Jordan has high potential wind energy and its environmental and energy policy targets can be met by exploitation wind energy.     

UK offshore wind : Anatomy of a windfarm project

By 2010, the UK Government aims to achieve 10% of the UK's electricity production being produced by renewable energy sources. In order to reach its target and encourage the energy sector to provide the necessary infrastructure and services, the Government is offering capital grants for early involvement in the creation of offshore windfarms around the UK coastline. Peter Cassidy (Partner) and Karen Cooksley (Partner), from international law firm Masons look at the some of the key UK legislative issues involved with the development of these farms.     

Assessment of utilization of wind energy resources in Nigeria

The study critically reviews the prospects and challenges of utilizing wind energy resources for power generation in Nigeria. The various initiatives by governments and researchers were surveyed and the nation is found to sit in the midst of enormous potential for wind harvest for power generation. The far northern states, the mountainous regions and different places of the central and south-eastern states were identified as good areas for wind harvest together with the offshore areas spanning from Lagos through Ondo, Ogun, Cross-Rivers to Rivers states along the Atlantic Ocean in the south–south. Despite this great potential and huge prospect, the country is found to still suffer from serious energy crises due to her over dependence on hydropower which also is susceptible to seasonal variation in the amount of water levels at dams. There is yet to be committed wind energy project for power generation on-going in the country. Several challenges bedeviling the development and utilization of wind energy resources were identified and suggestions highlighted to help pull the nation out of this lingering energy crisis.     

Assessment of wind-generation potentiality in Jordan using the site effectiveness approach

Wind data gathered over 3–10 years is used for a feasibility analysis of optimum future utilization of wind-generator potentiality in 22 sites covering all landscape types and regions in Jordan. The yearly mean wind speed and the yearly average available wind energy flux were computed for each site. Yearly mean wind speeds at a height of 24 m could reach as high as 7.6 m/s and available wind energy flux close to 3 MWh/m²/year could be attained. Detailed technical assessment for the nine most promising potential wind sites was made using the site effectiveness approach. The maximum site effectiveness and its corresponding cut-in speed were indicated, both of which depended on the site. The investigation was performed assuming three models of small and medium size wind machines representing different ranges of characteristic speeds and rated power suitable for water pumping and electric supply. The results show that small and medium wind turbines could be installed in the highlands and desert regions and utilized for water supply and electrical power generation, provided the correct wind machine-site is selected.     

The time variation of wind speeds and windfarm power output inKansas

On the Kansas plains, 1-min average wind speeds have high autocorrelations, with a value of about 0.9 with a lag of 32 min. In the winter, spring, and fall, 10 min average wind speed autocorrelation functions drop to 0 in 20 to 30 hr. Some cyclic behavior is noticed in the winter and fall correlations, with a period of several days. It is believed that this cyclic behavior is due to the passage of fronts. Only the summer season data showed a marked diurnal cycle. For short lag times up to about 30 min, the autocorrelation function of 1 min averaged wind machine output dropped more rapidly than that of wind speed. For longer lag times the 10 min averaged output autocorrelation was very similar to that of the wind speed. Wind speeds averaged for 1 min has a cross-correlation across a wind site which was a function of distance. The correlation dropped to about 0.83 at a distance of 21.7 km (13.5 mi). Wind machine output was less well correlated with a drop to about 0.69 at a spacing of 21.7 km. The autocorrelation function of a windfarm consisting of a large number of wind machines dropped much less rapidly than that of a single wind machine, as would be expected. A windfarm consisting of 100 MOD-2 wind machines with a spacing of 1.61 km by 0.80 km had a correlation of about 0.98 for a 10 min lag time when 1 min averaged output was considered     

Assessment of wind energy potential of two sites in North-East,Nigeria

The study is used to assess the wind energy potential of Maiduguri and Potiskum, two sites in North-East, Nigeria. 21 years (1987–2007) monthly mean wind data at 10 m height were assessed from the Nigeria Meteorological department and subjected to 2-parameter Weibull and other statistical analyzes. The result showed that average monthly mean wind speed variation for Potiskum ranged from 3.90 to 5.85 m/s, while for Maiduguri, it ranged from 4.35 to 6.33 m/s. Seasonally, data variation between the dry and wet seasons revealed that, the mean wind speed variation for Potiskum ranged from 4.46 (for dry) to 5.16 m/s (for wet), while for Maiduguri it ranged from 5.10 (dry) to 5.59 m/s (wet). The wind power density variation based on the Weibull analysis ranged from 102.54 to 300.15 W/m² for Potiskum and it ranged from 114.77 to 360.04 W/m² for Maiduguri respectively. Moreover, Maiduguri was found to be the better of the sites in terms of monthly and seasonal variation of mean wind speed, but they both can be suitable for stand alone and medium scale wind power generation.     

The economics of offshore wind

This paper presents an overview of the main issues associated with the economics of offshore wind. Investment in offshore wind systems has been growing rapidly throughout Europe, and the technology will be essential in meeting EU targets for renewable energy in 2020. Offshore wind suffers from high installation and connection costs, however, making government support essential. We review various support policies used in Europe, concluding that tender-based feed-in tariff schemes, as used in Denmark, may be best for providing adequate support while minimising developers’ rents. It may prove economic to build an international offshore grid connecting wind farms belonging to different countries that are sited close to each other.     

The economics of wind energy

This article presents the outcomes of a recent study carried out among wind energy manufacturers and developers regarding the current generation costs of wind energy projects in Europe, the factors that most influence them, as well as the reasons behind their recent increase and their expected future evolution. The research finds that the generation costs of an onshore wind farm are between 4.5 and 8.7 €cent/kWh; 6–11.1 €cent/kWh when located offshore, with the number of full hours and the level of capital cost being the most influencing elements. Generation costs have increased by more than 20% over the last 3 years mainly due to a rise of the price of certain strategic raw materials at a time when the global demand has boomed. However, the competitive position of wind energy investments vis-à-vis other technologies has not been altered. In the long-term, one would expect production costs go down; whether this will be enough to offset the higher price of inputs will largely depend on the application of correct policies, like R&D in new materials, O&M with remote-control devices, offshore wind turbines and substructures; introduction of advanced siting and forecasting techniques; access to adequate funding; and long-term legal stability.     

The economics of wind energy in South Africa

Battery charging and water pumping has been the only applications for wind energy in South Africa till now. A conservative estimate of the wind resource indicates that approximately 5% to 6% of the South African energy demands can be supplied from wind. However the low cost of electricity due to the abundance of cheap coal has made it difficult to justify the use of grid connected wind turbines. As with other countries where wind energy is now a part of the total energy package, South Africa will also have to go through a process of wind energy having to prove itself as a viable option while at the same time have a cost disadvantage.     

Assessment of solar and wind energy resources in Ethiopia. II. Wind energy

Using wind data from 21 meteorological stations with hourly or 3-hourly readings and 60 stations with monthly means, together with data from previous studies of neighbouring countries, a series of analyses were undertaken to illustrate the general availability of wind energy across Ethiopia. In order to calculate the wind energy density, firstly these 21 stations, along with 12 stations from neighbouring countries with hourly readings, were used to calculate the Weibull parameters, c and k. The Weibull distribution is shown to be a good approximation for the observed values in a majority of cases. Isopleths of the k values were then plotted, and from this the remaining 60 stations with monthly readings were then assigned k values. The wind energy density for each station was then calculated. Although the quantity of wind data is somewhat lacking, the results show that there is a potential for wind energy utilisation in some regions of Ethiopia.     

Assessment of solar and wind energy resources in Ethiopia. I. Solar energy

This paper describes how data from a variety of sources are merged to present new countrywide maps of the solar energy distribution over Ethiopia. The spatial coverage of stations with radiation data was found to be unsatisfactory for the purpose of a countrywide solar energy assessment exercise. Therefore, radiation had to be predicted from sunshine hours by employing empirical models. Using data from seven stations in Ethiopia, linear and quadratic correlation relationships between monthly mean daily solar radiation and sunshine hours per day have been developed. These regional models show a distinct improvement over previously employed countrywide models. To produce a national solar-energy distribution profile, a spatial extension of the radiation/sunshine relationships had to be carried out. To do this, the intercepts (a) and slopes (b) of each of the seven linear regression equations and another six from previous studies, completed in neighbouring Sudan, Kenya and Yemen, were used to interpolate the corresponding values to areas between them. Subsequent to these procedures, 142 stations providing only sunshine data were assigned their “appropriate” a and b values to estimate the amount of solar radiation received, which was then used to produce annual and monthly solar radiation distribution maps for Ethiopia. The results show that in all regions solar energy is an abundant resource.     

The wind resources in Uganda

On the basis of existing wind data of 11 Ugandan sites, an exploratory investigation was carried out; all the characteristic parameters are presented as well as the output potentiality of the sites; a territorial wind map was also tentatively drawn out. It is shown that the wind resource of most of the country is too small to allow electric generation, and should be exploited only for water-pumping with multibladed windmills. However, two promising areas were found near the east and the south-west borders, where an adequate, even though moderate resource is available, suitable for irrigation or some electric power for primary needs. A specific investigation in these areas is suggested to find better sites.     

Solar sites assessment in Jordan using fuzzy logic

Due to the current increase in oil prices, economic growth, increasing population, and the growing energy demand in Jordan, the provision of reliable energy supply at reasonable cost is considered a crucial element of economic reform. The present study utilizes fuzzy logic to assess solar sites in Jordan and to decide which sites should be given the highest priority with respect to their benefits and costs. The criterion of evaluation using fuzzy logic is based on different parameters, i.e., solar resources, site capacity, site accessibility, soil condition, water availability, grid connection distance, land cost, land roughness, and wind speed. The results show that the Al Quwairah site has the highest benefit to cost ratio. Therefore, it should be given the highest priority in terms of erecting solar power technologies to achieve high power production capacity. The second and the third options are Ma’an and Wadi Rum, respectively.     

Wind speed and wind energy potential of Jordan

Routine wind data from 11 stations in Jordan have been analysed. Monthly average, and seasonal wind speed and average power density distributions were determined for each station. The monthly average wind speed for the two most potential sites Ras Muneef (RA) and Mafraq (MF) ranged from 3.0 to 7.4 m/sec and the average power density for these two sites ranged from 110 to 370 W/m² at RA and from 105 to 470 W/m² at MF. An application of wind power as supplementary power supply is suggested and cost analysis is given.     

Potentials of wind energy development for water pumping in Jordan

The potential of the development of water pumping using wind energy in Jordan was studied. Underground water can be pumped using wind power. Based on available wind data eleven wind sites were considered. The results show that these sites can be divided, in terms of the annual amount of pumped water, into three categories. One is considered “favorable”, which includes Ras Muneef, Mafraq, and Aqaba. Their water output adds up to most of water produced from all eleven sites combined (about 64%). Others are considered to be “promising”, which include H-5, Irbid, and Ma'an. Their water output adds up to about to 28% of all water pumped at all sites combined. The rest of sites considered are found to be “poor”, which include H-4, Amman, Queen Alia's Airport, Shoubak, and Deiralla, with much smaller amounts of water output. Their combined water output adds up to less than 8% of all site combined.     

Potentials of wind energy development for water desalination in Jordan

The potential of the development of water desalination using wind energy in Jordan was studied. Eleven wind solar sites were considered. The results show that these sites can be divided, in terms of the yearly total amount of desalinated water, into three categories. One is considered favourable, which includes Ras Muneef, Mafraq, and Aqaba. Their water production adds up to about 75% of all water produced from all 11 sites combined. Others are considered to be promising (about 24% in total), which include H-5, Irbid, and Ma'an. The rest of sites considered are found to be very poor, which include H-4, Amman, Queen Alia Airport, Shoubak, and Deiralla, with traces of water produced (less than 1%). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diurnal cycle RANS simulations applied to wind resource assessment

Microscale computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models can be used for wind resource assessment on complex terrains. These models generally assume neutral atmospheric stratification, an assumption that can lead to inaccurate modeling results and to large uncertainties at certain sites. We propose a methodology for wind resource evaluation based on unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier‐Stokes (URANS) simulations of diurnal cycles including the effect of thermal stratification. Time‐dependent boundary conditions are generated by a 1D precursor to drive 3D diurnal cycle simulations for a given geostrophic wind direction sector. Time instants of the cycle representative of four thermal stability regimes are sampled within diurnal cycle simulations and combined with masts time series to obtain the wind power density (WPD). The methodology has been validated on a complex site instrumented with seven met masts. The WPD spatial distribution is in good agreement with observations with the mean absolute error improving 17.1% with respect to the neutral stratification assumption.     

The economics of wind power with energy storage

We develop a nonlinear mathematical optimization program for investigating the economic and environmental implications of wind penetration in electrical grids and evaluating how hydropower storage could be used to offset wind power intermittence. When wind power is added to an electrical grid consisting of thermal and hydropower plants, it increases system variability and results in a need for additional peak-load, gas-fired generators. Our empirical application using load data for Alberta's electrical grid shows that costs of wind-generated electricity vary from $37 per MWh to $68/MWh, and depend primarily on the wind profiles of installed turbines. Costs of reducing CO₂ emissions are estimated to be $41–$56 per t CO₂. When pumped hydro storage is introduced in the system or the capacity of the water reservoirs is enhanced, the hydropower facility could provide most of the peak load requirements obviating the need to build large peak-load gas generators.     

Fuzzy risk index of wind sites

The authors present a method for the computation of the fuzzy risk index of wind power plant sites, where the installation of wind energy conversion systems seems to be possible in the near future. The approach is based on fuzzy sets theory. The fuzzy variables are both the wind speed and its frequency of occurrence, as they are measured on the site. The method was applied to the wind data of the Greek islands, focusing on extreme wind events. The results of the application are compared to those obtained through a classical risk analysis to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed fuzzy risk index approach