The fracture properties of aged 316 austenitic steel

The fracture properties of 316 austenitic steel aged at 700°C are assessed in this paper. Charpy impact energy, crack growth fracture resistance, J-Δa, and tensile properties were compared with the unaged properties at four different ageing times. The J-Δa curves were measured from pre-cracked Charpy and 25 mm compact specimens using the unloading compliance technique.

The degradation in fracture properties with ageing is explained in terms of the microstructural behaviour of the steel.     

The influence of side-grooving on pre-cracked Charpy specimens in bending

Fatigue pre-cracked Charpy specimens are sometimes used to measure the fracture toughness of steels. For most steels the dimensions of the Charpy specimens are insufficient to prevent significant plastic yielding ahead of the crack during a test. A feature of the tests is that stable crack growth results in significant crack front curvature. Side-grooving compact tension specimens has been found to inhibit crack front curvature and promote straight fronted crack growth. This paper investigates the effect of side-groove depth on the fracture behaviour of pre-cracked Charpy specimens.Elastic three-dimensional finite element analyses have been performed to assess the effect of side-groove depth on the compliance, stress state and stress intensity factor.The load displacement behaviour of Charpy specimens has been measured to determine the effect of side-groove depth on the limit load and fracture resistance.Using the finite element and experimental results an expression is derived for calculating the fracture resistance of side-grooved Charpy specimens. The expression is used to determine the critical fracture resistance of 1CrMoV steel at two temperatures using Charpy specimens with and without side-grooves.     

The J-resistance curve leak-before-break test program on material for the darlington nuclear generating station

The Darlington Leak-Before-Break (DLBB) approach has been developed for large diameter (21, 22, 24 inch) SA106B heat transport (HT) piping and SA105 fittings as a design alternative to pipewhip restraints and in recognition of the questionable benefits of providing such restraints. Ontario Hydro's DLBB approach is based on the elastic plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) method. In this test program, J-resistance curves were determined from actual pipe heats that were used in the construction of the Darlington heat transport systems (Units 1 and 2). Test blocks were prepared using four different welding procedures for nuclear Class I piping.

The test program was designed to take into account the effect of various factors such as test temperature, crack plane orientation, welding effects, etc., which have influence on fracture properties. A total of 91 tests were conducted. An acceptable lower bound J-resistance curve for the piping steels was obtained by machining maximum thickness specimens from the pipes and by testing side grooved compact tension specimens.

Test results showed that all pipes, welds and heat-affected zone materials within the scope of the DLBB program exhibited uppershelf toughness behaviour. All specimens showed high crack initiation toughness J_Ic, rising J-resistance curve and stable and ductile crack extension. Toughness of product forms depended on the direction of crack extension (circumferential versus axial crack orientation). Toughness of DLBB welds and parent materials at 250°C was lower than that at 20°C.     

Principles of the German approach to the analysis of flawed structures

The analysis of flawed structures in the linear elastic regime (LEFM) has been treated very extensively, especially in the framework of the 4th German nuclear programme. Investigations with large specimens have demonstrated the applicability of the LEFM for a variety of materials ranging from low to high toughness levels. In the elastic-plastic (EPFM) regime, however, especially the J-integral method has been used for quantifying the safety margin, because with a required value of upper shelf Charpy energy alone this quantification is not possible.

A correlation between the crack initiation value J_i and Charpy upper shelf energy was evaluated experimentally, justifying the generally upgraded upper shelf energy level adopted in the Code. Furthermore, this correlation can be employed when fracture toughness values are not available as is mostly the case for irradiated material from surveillance programmes.

To cope with the problems resulting from repeated transients in a complex component, incipient crack intitiation and propagation under cyclic thermal load have been investigated experimentally and theoretically on a RPV nozzle corner in the HDR plant and on a thick-walled (200 mm) hollow cylinder subjected to pressurized thermal shock (PTS). Since the OCA code covers only the linear elastic range, for this loading case elastic-plastic fracture mechanics calculations have been carried out by means of the Finite Element Method. The first test performed with high toughness material has shown good agreement with the J-integral approach. Additional validation tests are under way to demonstrate the lowest tolerable toughness level to withstand PTS without catastrophic failure.

With respect to critical flaw sizes in degraded piping and vessels, the ‘leak before break’ limit curve for different loading conditions has been established and experimentally validated using piping and model vessels of different sizes, crack configurations and toughness levels.

The still existing uncertainties in the detection, sizing and interpretation of signals from nondestructive examination are the background of NDE validation programmes for both medium size and full size reactor pressure vessels. Acoustic emission trials as well as extensive ultrasonic (US) examinations will be pursued in cooperation programmes, last but not least in the framework of PISC III.     

Evaluation of the effect of metallurgical variables on materials behaviour and reference curves

An integral part of the safety assessment of nuclear pressure vessels and piping is the quantitative estimation of defect growth in both a stable and an unstable manner during service. This estimation is essential for determining whether any defect detected during inspection should be repaired or whether the size of the defect even after its expected growth is small enough to leave the integrity of the vessel unaffected.

The most important stable defect growth mechanism is that of environmentally assisted cyclic crack growth. Recent results indicate that it is markedly affected by sulphur content and/or manganese sulphide morphology and distribution. This implies that an essential improvement in component safety has been gained by currently applied steelmaking practices, which result in extra low sulphur content, generally below 0·010 wt.%, and in the round shape and small size of inclusions through, e.g. calcium treatment, hence considerably reducing the effect of the environment on crack growth rate. This further implies that the ASME Section XI reference curves for environmentally accelerated cyclic crack growth are conservative for steels produced by current steelmaking practices.

The ASME Section XI applies predominantly linear elastic fracture mechanics to assess the effects of cracks on the integrity of nuclear power plant components. Unstable linear elastic fracture often propagates by a cleavage mechanism. The cleavage fracture process has recently been shown to be of a statistical nature in both ferritic and bainitic steels. The carbide size distribution plays a dominant role in controlling the fracture toughness of these steels. A cleavage fracture model has been developed, by which both the expectance value and the probability limits of the fracture toughness, K_IC, can be predicted. The probability limits given by the model are shown to be consistent with the experimental observations. The application of the model to the data on which the ASME Section XI reference fracture toughness curve is based indicates that the reference curve is slightly unconservative.     

Evaluation of fracture toughness based on results of instrumented Charpy tests

The modified Gurson model is used to determine micromechanical toughness parameters of a weld material from the irradiation surveillance of a reactor pressure vessel. These parameters were used to numerically simulate static and dynamic fracture mechanics tests for the determination of J-resistance curves. The results were confirmed by means of experiments with irradiated subsized specimens of the original material. The essential steps of the analysis—the consideration of rate-dependent stress-strain curves and the determination of the material parameters, as well as the numerical modelling of the boundary conditions at the supports of the Charpy specimen—were validated by comparing analyses and experiments with a representative unirradiated submerged are weld material. The initiation values of the J-resistance curves converted into pseudo-plane strain fracture toughness values K_Ic allowed the conservative adjustment of the ASME reference fracture toughness curve.     

Comparison and evaluation of creep crack growth rate and fracture time for Alloy 800 by the Q* parameter

Creep crack growth tests were carried out under several temperature and stress conditions for Fe-based superalloy Alloy 800 and the Q* parameter was applied to an evaluation of the crack growth rate at elevated temperatures for DEN and CT specimens. Creep fracture times were evaluated with the parameter derived by integrating the creep crack growth rate formula expressed in terms of the Q* parameter for DEN, CT and smooth specimens of Alloy 800 under several temperature and stress conditions. It was found that the creep crack growth rate for CT specimens is represented as the different data bands by the Q* parameter for DEN specimens. However, it can be evaluated by parallel movement along the Q* axis in the Q* parameter-da/dt diagram for Alloy 800. The parameter {T(log₁₀t_f+20)×10⁻³} derived from the Q* parameter can compare and evaluate the difference in specimen shape and loading mechanism on creep fracture time using the identical parameter for Alloy 800.     

Effect of constraint on ductile crack growth and ductile-brittle fracture transition of a carbon steel

Ductile-brittle fracture transition was investigated using compact tension (CT) specimens from −70 to 40°C for a carbon steel. Large deformation finite element analysis was carried out to simulate the stable crack growth in the compact tension (CT, a/W = 0.6), three point-point bend [SE(B), a/W = 0.1] and centre-cracked tension [M(T), a/W = 0.5] specimens. An experimental crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) resistance curve was employed as the crack growth criterion. Ductile tearing is sensitive to constraint and tearing modulus increases with reduced constraint level. The finite element analysis shows that path-dependence of the J-integral occurs from the very beginning of crack growth and ductile crack growth elevates the opening stress on the remaining ligament. Cleavage may occur after some ductile crack growth due to the increase of opening stress. For both stationary and growing cracks, the magnitude of opening stress increases with increasing in-plane constraint. The ductile-brittle transition takes place when the opening stress ahead of the crack tip reaches the local cleavage stress as the in-plane constraint of the specimen increases.     

Numerical analysis of IPIRG cracked pipe experiments subjected to dynamic and cyclic loading

This report contains results of a finite element study aiming to identify the influence of loading history and geometry for cracked pipes subjected to complex loading. The experiments have been performed within the International Piping Integrity Research Group (IPIRG) Program. The majority of the numerically analyzed experiments were conducted on straight pipes with an outside diameter of 168 mm and containing a large circumferential through-wall crack. The considered pipes were loaded in four-point bending under displacement control and at a temperature of 288°C. The types of loading were combinations of either quasi-static or dynamic and also monotonic or cyclic loading with different loading ratios R. Some analyses were also performed on surface-cracked pipes subjected to slow, monotonic loading.

In the finite element study, 20-node solid elements were used for the through-wall cracked pipes and a combination of shell and non-linear line spring elements for the surface-cracked pipes. Stable crack growth was simulated by gradual node relaxation and crack closure is accounted for by using simple contact elements. The J-integral for a remote contour is calculated and used as a characterizing fracture parameter although the cyclic loading violates the theoretical basis for this procedure. The near-tip J can not be used for growing cracks because of the weak energy singularity. The results of the numerical study confirm the trends from the experiments in that a high loading rate has a negative influence on the fracture properties of the studied carbon steel and that large cyclic loading, especially at R = −1, lowers the apparent J_R-curve for both carbon and stainless steels. To some extent geometry effects appear to be present when comparing the results from pipes containing surface cracks and through-wall cracks with results from CT specimens. These effects are more pronounced for large amounts of stable crack growth than at initiation.     

Non-linear, axi-symmetric finite element analyses of a circumferentially cracked bar specimen

A review of the use of circumferentially cracked bar specimens for the measurement of fracture toughness has identified several areas where further information is required before a test method can be fully developed. An area of concern was the choice of J-integral function available in the literature for the specimen. This article compares the J-integral functions available in the literature with the Rice contour integral evaluated from the results of non-linear, axi-symmetric finite element analyses performed for a range of crack depths and material behaviour. The comparison enables the optimum function to be chosen. The finite element analyses also enable an improved limit load function for the specimen to be derived.     

Measurement of crack propagation velocity in nuclear pressure vessel steel (SA516 gr. 70)

An attempt has been made to develop a simple, reliable and cost-effective device for measuring the dynamic crack propagation velocity in a nuclear pressure vessel steel (SA516 gr. 70). The experimental method is described and a simple digital approach is proposed. The experimentally determined dynamic crack velocity has been utilized to obtain elastic dynamic stress intensity factors by INSAMCR (a two-dimensional dynamic finite element code which is a modified version of SAMCR developed by Dr Schwartz at the University of Maryland). A relationship between instantaneous crack tip velocities and dynamic stress intensity factors for pressure vessel steels is estimated using dynamic crack propagation velocities determined by a proposed measuring device. The relationship between the dynamic stress intensity factor and time history and the dynamic arrest toughness for each test are obtained using the generation mode dynamic finite element analysis. A function ƒ(å) = 1·356 − 2·672å + 6·494å² − 4·539å³ + 1·461å⁴ is suggested which may be useful to predict the relationship between the dynamic fracture toughness (K(å)) and the dynamic crack arrest toughness (K_Ia) for SA516 gr. 70 steel (say K(å) = K_Ia ƒ(å) where å is the dynamic crack propagation velocity).     

Simplified stable crack growth analyses of welded CT specimens—comparison study of GE/EPRI, reference stress and R6 methods

This paper describes some simplified stable crack growth analyses of two kinds of inhomogeneous CT specimens. The one is machined from a submerged are welded plate of a nuclear pressure vessel A533B Class 1 steel, while the other is machined from an electron-beam welded plate of the A533B Class 1 steel and a high strength HT80 steel. In both specimens, initial cracks are placed to be normal to the fusion line. The ratio of yield stresses of the weld metal and the base metal of the A533B Class 1 steel is about 1·15, while that of the HT80 and the A533B Class 1 steels is about 1·4.

The generation phase crack growth analyses using the GE/EPRI and the reference stress methods are performed, calculating an applied load (P) and the J-value, while the application phase analyses of analyses using the R6 method are performed to calculate the maximum value of the applied load (P_max). Finally, some modification procedures of the three simplified estimation schemes are discussed in order to apply them to inhomogeneous material regimes.     

A J integral estimation method for cracks in welds with mismatched mechanical properties

A J integral estimation method is proposed for a crack located in the middle of a weld with a mismatch in mechanical properties from the surrounding base material. The method covers both yield stress over/under-matching and differences in hardening behaviour between weld and base material. The method involves the definition of an ‘equivalent stress-strain relationship’ based on the mechanical properties of both the weld and base materials. The value of J is then estimated using the equivalent stress-strain relationship in conjunction with the EPRI method. An approximate solution for the equivalent stress-strain relationship has been obtained by assuming that the average resistance along a slip-line controls the plastic stress and strain fields near the crack tip. Detailed formulae for plane strain centre-cracked panel (CCP) specimens have been derived on the basis of limit load solutions.

Nonlinear finite element analysis of 26 cases with various degrees of mismatch in yield stress and hardening behaviour have been performed for plane strain CCP specimens. The results show good agreement with those estimated using the equivalent stress-strain relationship method. Traditional defect assessment methods based on the use of ‘weaker material’ properties in a mismatched weld are compared to the results of the finite element analyses. It is proposed that the equivalent stress-strain relationship may be used to define the R6 failure assessment diagram for particular weld defects using the Option 2 procedure of R6.     

The second ASTM/ESIS Symposium on Constraint Effects in Fracture; an overview

The Second ASTM/ESIS Symposium on Constraint Effects in Fracture attracted a total of 24 contributions. These papers addressed various models to characterize, quantify and predict constraint effects, as well as experimental/validation studies and application studies. Available constraint models include the mechanics-based approaches of two-parameter fracture mechanics (2PFM) (i.e. J-T, J-Q, J-A₂, J-_g), statistical techniques based on the Weibull model, and micro-mechanical approaches applicable to fracture by both cleavage and ductile mechanisms. Collectively, these strategies extend significantly the range of loading conditions to which a fracture mechanics methodology can be applied to assess the integrity of an operating structure. At this stage, the following general statements can be made:

1. (1) In the lower transition regime where cleavage fracture occurs before or just shortly after the onset of ductile tearing, all of the 2PEM constraint models can be applied to parameterize the variation of critical fracture toughness with constraint. Of the various models available, the J-Q approach of O'Dowd and Shih applies rigorously to the highest deformation levels and to the broadest range of materials. Experimental evidence is available which shows the validity of this approach. All of the 2PEM approaches, however, suffer from the disadvantage that they complicate considerably the task of characterizing material toughness because toughness becomes a function of constraint at every temperature rather than a single value.

2. (2) In the lower transition regime it is also possible to predict without resort to empirical argument this variation of toughness with constraint using the results of standard fracture toughness tests coupled with the micromechanics approach of Dodds and Anderson. At the second Symposium, the applicability of this model was extended into the upper transition regime where significant stable tearing may precede the onset of cleavage. Again, experimental evidence is available which shows the validity of this approach. Certain issues remain with respect to the proper treatment of 3-D effects; these are currently under investigation.

3. (3) A “master curve” approach to the analysis of fracture toughness data in the transition regime has been proposed in a draft ASTM standard on this topic. Combination of this approach with a statistical correction for thickness effects based on the Weibull model appears to provide a powerful tool for the predicting toughness of geometrically similar specimens from one another (e.g. thick C(T)s predicted from thin C(T)s) across a wide range of thicknesses.

4. (4) 2PFM models can be applied on the upper shelf to parameterize constraint effects on R-curve behavior. However, in this application the theoretical basis of these approaches is lost as a reference infinite body field solution that is self-similar to the field solution for growing cracks in finite bodies is not available. As a consequence, it can be expected that “size effects” would likely reveal themselves in such an application. On the upper shelf the way forward appears to be through application of some form of local approach wherein sub-continuum material variables are incorporated into the models to provide a capability to predict accurately structural behavior from test results.

     

Probabilistic fracture analysis of cracked pipes with circumferential flaws

This paper describes the development of a probabilistic fracture-mechanics model for analyzing circumferential through-walled-cracked pipes subject to bending loads. It involves elastic-plastic finite element analysis for estimating energy release rates, J-tearing theory for characterizing ductile fracture, and standard structural reliability methods for conducting probabilistic analysis. The evaluation of the J-integral is based on the deformation theory of plasticity and power-law idealizations of stress-strain and fracture toughness curves. This allows J to be expressed in terms of non-dimensional influence functions (F- and h₁-functions) that depend oncrack size, pipe geometry, and material hardening constant. New equations were developed to represent these functions. Both analytical and simulation methods were formulated to determine the probabilistic characteristics of J. The same methods were used later to predict the failure probability of pipes as a function of applied load. Numerical examples are provided to illustrate the proposed methodology. The validity of the J-integral based on the proposed equations for predicting the crack driving force in a through-wall-cracked pipe was evaluated by comparison with available results in the current literature. Probability densities of the J-intergral were predicted as a function of applied loads. Failure probabilities corresponding to three different performance criteria were evaluated for stanless steel nuclear piping from a boiling water reactor plant. The results suggest that large differences may exist in the failure probability estimates produced by these performance criteria.     

Instrumented drop-weight test results for normalised and tempered 9Cr1Mo steel

From instrumented drop-weight tests, the nil ductility transition temperature (T_NDT), and a conservative estimate of dynamic fracture toughness (K_Id), at T_NDT for normalised and tempered 9Cr---1Mo steel, are determined to be −25°C and 70 MPa√m, respectively. The latter value agrees well with that determined from pre-cracked Charpy tests. The K_Id/σ_Yd (σ_Yd is the dynamic yield stress) ratio at T_NDT is estimated to be 0·076 √m, in agreement with previous estimates. The uncertainties in crack profile measurement and effect of microstructural variation in the heat affected zone on fracture loads are also discussed.     

A comparison between four elasto-plastic fracture mechanics parameters

Various proposals have been made for the fracture assessment of pressure vessels under conditions where any failure would involve plastic deformation. In this paper three elasto-plastic fracture mechanics parameters (the J-contour integral, the equivalent energy value and the value of K corrected for plastic zone size) are compared with the Crack Opening Displacement value calculated from mouth-opening measurements on standard notched bar specimens using the method recommended in the British Standard Draft for Development, the work being based on Sumpter's elasto-plastic finite element analysis of a deeply notched bar. The three parameters were found to be roughly equivalent and directly related to the COD. It was also shown that a large volume of fracture toughness data for relatively low strength weld metals conformed with the analysis. Finally, validity limits proposed for J, for K corrected for plastic zone size and for COD were found to be very similar although the reasons for setting these limits differed in each case.     

The effect of a long post weld heat treatment on the integrity of a welded joint in a pressure vessel steel

The effect of a long post weld heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a welded joint in a 0·2%C-1·4%Mn-0·5%Mo pressure vessel steel was studied. Multipass submerged-arc welds were made at a heat input of 1·2 and 4·3 kJ mm⁻¹. Individual microstructural regions observed in the heat-affected zone of the actual weld were simulated. These regions were brittle in the as-simulated condition. Post weld heat treatment for periods of up to 40 h at 620°C resulted in a significant improvement in the Charpy impact toughness. At the same time, a loss of the heat-affected zone and weld metal hardness and transverse weld strenghth occurred. A fracture toughness (J_Ic) of 134 kJ m⁻² was measured in the heat-affected zone of the 4·3 kJ mm⁻¹ welds after prolonged post weld heat treatment. The improvement in weldment toughness with post weld heat treatment was primarily attributed to softening of the structure.     

Removal of the influence of stress triaxiality on crack tip opening displacement fracture toughness by continuum damage mechanics approach

Experimental data for AS 1405-180, AS 1204-350, HY 80 and C-Mn steels shows that the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) elastic-plastic fracture toughness at initiation δ_c decreases with increasing crack tip stress trifaxiality. This trend is confirmed by the continuum damage analysis in this paper. The dependence of the CTOD parameter at initiation on the local constraint, i.e. the stress triaxiality, provides the motivation to seek parameters that could rank the toughness of steels. Since the local effective plastic strain can be related to the CTOD, a relationship is described between the initiation CTOD toughness and the crack tip constraint, i.e. the stress triaxiality, on the basis of a new local damage theory for ductile fracture. Furthermore, a new constraint corrected toughness parameter δ_dc (and corresponding criterion) for ductile fracture is proposed, in which both crack tip deformation and crack tip constraint intensity are taken into account. Several series of experimental data have shown that the parameter δ_dc is nearly a constant or independent of the local constraint. It is found that the toughness variation with constraint changes can effectively be removed by use of the constraint correction procedure proposed in this paper.     

The effect of welding mechanical heterogeneity on fracture toughness feature of base metal

In the present paper, the effects of the mechanical heterogeneity of a weldment on the fracture toughness features of the base metal near the weld metal are studied experimentally by measuring the Crack Opening Displacement (COD) of the three point bend specimens with crack tip locating in the different distance from weld metal zone. The results show that the initiation toughness, the crack growth resistance and the tearing modulus of the base metal near the weld metal zone are greatly affected by the mechanical heterogeneity of the weldment. The nearer the crack is located to the weld metal zone, the stronger is the effect of weld metal properties. Moreover, the Strength Zone Width (SZW)_c of the crack has a good linear relation with initiation toughness and can be used as a fracture toughness parameter showing the mechanical heterogeneity of weldment.