The Influence of Processing Variables on the Dimensional Integrity of Spheroidal-graphite Iron Castings

Abstract

This investigation was carried out to identify the major factors and their degree of influence on the dimensional accuracy of spheroidal-graphite iron castings produced in chemically- bonded sand moulds. Test castings were poured into furan-resin-bonded zircon sand and silica sand moulds and sodium silicate/ CO₂ bonded silica sand moulds. A comparison of casting sizes with those of the mould cavity into which they were poured showed considerable scatter and overlap. From these data the size that each casting would have had, had it solidified without graphite formation, was calculated and found to depend on mould cavity size for each type of mould. By isolating the differences in casting size due to graphite it was possible to identify the influencing factors. Thus castings poured into furan-resin-bonded zircon sand have the highest contraction and their size depends primarily on the amount of graphite present. The dimensions of castings poured into silica sand moulds show more variation and depend not only on the amount of graphite present and the structure of the metal but also on the thermal expansion of the silica sand moulds.     

Feeding of Nodular Iron Castings in Shell and CO2 Process Moulds—a Comparative Study

A detailed investigation was carried out to study feed metal requirements in Shetland CO₂-moulded nodular-graphite iron plate castings. The results of the experiments indicate that: 1 In thin plate castings (up to 25 mm thick), the modulus ratio required to produce sand castings is practically the same for shell and CO₂ Process moulds.

2 In thick plate castings (～35 mm) the modulus ratio needed to produce sound castings is the same for CO₂ Process moulds and steel-shot-backed shell moulds.

However, in the case of silica sand backed shell moulds, it is difficult to produce thick sound plate castings, even though the modulus used is that which is sufficient to produce sound castings.

Temperature gradient during the last stages of solidification viz., eutectic solidification is an important parameter influencing the soundness of the castings. The minimum temperature gradient (G_E) required to produce sound plate castings in shell moulds is 2.9°C/cm and in CO₂ Process sand moulds it is is 1.5°C/cm.     

Influence of furfuryl moulding sand on flake graphite formation in surface layer of ductile iron castings

The influence of the use of moulding sand with furan resin, prepared both with fresh sand and reclaimed matrix, on the formation of a flake graphite formation at the surface layer of ductile iron castings has been investigated. A series of experimental heats of ductile iron cast in moulds made of moulding sand characterised by different levels of surface active elements (sulphur, oxygen) were performed. The effect of the wall thickness and the initial temperature of the metal in the mould cavity on the formation of flake graphite in the surface layer of the casting is shown in the paper. Investigations carried out by means of scanning electron microscopy (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) showed concentration of gradient profiles of surface active elements in the castings surface layer, which are responsible for their quality. Finally, it has been shown that there exists a significant effect of the quality of the sand on the formation of the flake graphite layer and the surface characteristics of ductile iron castings.     

A Free Thermal Contraction Method for Modelling the Heat-transfer Coefficient at the Casting/Mould Interface

Abstract

This study is intended to explore a simple and inexpensive method that is able to model the variation and distribution of the heat transfer coefficient at the casting/mould interface. It has been assumed that, in a rigid mould, the magnitude of interface gap size primarily depends on the thermal contraction of cast metal as it solidifies. Consequently, a free thermal contraction method has been developed to describe the thermal contact phenomena at the casting/mould interface, based on the above assumptions. This method has been used in the solidification simulations for three sand castings of different shapes. The numerical solutions of the simulations agree closely with the experimental results of the thermocouple measurements in the castings and their moulds. For the casting and mould materials involved, the empirical parameters in the equation of the heat transfer coefficient are the same for each of these cases, i.e. independent of the geometric shape of the castings.     

Pressurised feeding systems

Pressurised feeding is by no means new. Whitworth patented a method for pressurising steel in refractory lined ingot moulds in the mid 1800s, while accounts of pressurising aluminium castings during solidification appeared in the 1930s, and the pressurisation of risers in steel and iron castings surfaced in the 1950s. It is appropriate to distinguish between cases where the whole casting and rigging has been pressurised and those where the feeder heads alone were pressurised. Generally speaking, pressurising the whole casting has not proved especially effective. Early experiments with aluminium involved top pouring of moulds contained in an autoclave. The considerable height through which the metal fell undoubtedly mitigated results. Furthermore, since the alloys were of a non-skin forming variety (i.e. long freezing range) the puncture of the partially solidified surface led to further property degradation.

Work of Watmough and Berry in the US in 1961, repeated by Irani and Kondic at Birmingham published eight years later, employed aluminium sand cast bars with pressurised feeder heads surrounded by stout insulating sleeves. The results of both sets of experiments with long-freezing range alloys, showed excellent promise in terms of reducing dispersed porosity. During the nineties Fischer-Disa picked up this concept and successfully implemented it on a production basis for both aluminium and ductile iron. Most recently MSU in collaboration with US metal casters has applied the technique to tilt-poured permanent moulding (gravity-die casting). The results of this recent work will be described in detail.     

Effect of cooling rate and of titanium additions on the microstructure of thin-walled compacted iron castings

This article addresses the effect of cooling rate and of titanium additions on the exhibited microstructure of thin-walled compacted graphite iron (TWCI) castings as determined by changing moulding media, section size and ferrotitanium. Various moulding materials were employed (silica sand and insulating sand ‘‘LDASC’’) to achieve different cooling rates. This study shows that the cooling rates exhibited in the TWCI castings varies widely (70–14 °C/s) when the wall thickness is changed from 2 to 5 mm. In turn, this is accompanied by a significant variation in the compacted graphite fraction. The resultant cooling rates were effectively reduced by applying an insulating sand in order to obtain the desired graphite compactness. Ti additions in combination with LDASC sand moulds were highly effective in promoting the development of over 80% compacted graphite in castings with wall thicknesses of 2–3 mm as evidenced by quantitative metallographic analyses.     

小型球铁件的收缩特点及其补缩工艺

根据国内外有关研究结果，阐述了球墨铸铁件冷却凝固过程中的体积变化规律，建立了球墨铸铁的收缩和膨胀模型，用以分析球墨铸铁小件的缩孔缩松形成机理。以轮毂铸件为例提出了防止缩孔缩松缺陷的工艺措施。     

Effect of Cooling Rate on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thin-Walled Ductile Iron Castings

This article addresses the effect of cooling rate on microstructure and mechanical properties as determined by changing molding media and section size. The research was conducted for thin-walled iron castings with 2-5-mm wall thickness and for the reference casting with 13-mm wall thickness, using different molding materials (silica sand and insulating sand “LDASC”) to achieve various cooling rates. Thermal analysis was performed to determine the real cooling rate at the beginning of the graphite eutectic solidification. In general, it was found that the predictions based on theoretical analysis of the solidification process of ductile iron are in good agreement with the experimental outcomes. Finally, the present study provides insights into the effect of cooling rate on the graphite nodule count, the ferrite fraction and mechanical properties of thin-walled ductile iron castings. The study shows that the cooling rate of thin-walled castings varies in a wide range (80-15 °C/s) when changing the wall thickness from 2 to 5 mm, accompanied by significantly changing the mechanical properties of ductile iron. The cooling rate can be effectively reduced by applying an insulating sand to obtain the desired properties of thin-walled castings practically in the whole range of ductile iron grades in accordance with the ASTM Standard.     

Properties of silica sand and GBF slag moulds practiced by Nishiyama process

ABSTRACT

Investigations were carried out to use Granulated Blast furnace (GBF) slag as mould material for either full or partial replacement of existing silica sand in foundry industry. Nishiyama process was adopted for evaluating the same. A series of sand tests were carried out on sand and slag individually and also combinations of these two. Three types of moulds were made with sand, slag individually and combination of these two. Both laboratory and industrial castings of ferrous and non ferrous materials were performed. Results of mould permeability, compression and shear strength of GBF slag reveal that is a suitable candidate for either partial or full replacement of molding sand. During casting of both laboratory and industrial, neither fuse, dripping nor collapse of the mould walls was observed; this is true for both ferrous and non ferrous castings. Castings with good surface finish, no surface defects and porosity were made by slag moulds.     

铁型覆砂铸造及其发展

铁型覆砂铸造是指在金属型（铁型）内腔覆上一薄层树脂砂，然后采用这种覆砂铁型浇注铸件。原来主要用于球铁曲轴，现已扩大应用到50余种（类）铸件。由于覆砂铁型刚度较高，用于球铁件能实现无冒口铸造．提高工艺出品率，并能提高铸件尺寸精度，改善表面质量。笔者介绍铁型覆砂工艺的基本原理、发展情况以及计算机凝固模拟在该工艺上的应用。     

湿型球墨铸铁件收缩特性的试验研究

采用正交试验的方法，浇注一系列铸件，测量铸件的冷却曲线；解剖铸件，测定铸件质量、铸件及缩孔体积。研究了碳当量、孕育、铸件模数以及铸型条件对湿型球铁件收缩特性及缩孔缩松的影响。为开展数值模拟预测球铁件缩孔、缩松的工作打下了基础。     

Gating and risering in vertical green sand moulds

The high number of successful green sand foundries working with vertical moulding equipment is the best proof of the advantages of this technology. It provides high productivity and accurate positioning of cores. It offers the freedom to design and produce with optimal functioning gating systems to secure good casting quality.

The aim of the paper is to look into new ways of improving this successful casting technology. First a short introduction to the advantages of vertical moulding will be presented.

The next subject is the advantages of utilising casting process simulation to optimise casting layout, gating and risering. Focus is on castings produced in the conventional way as well as on castings that are produced using the newly developed active feeding and active bottom filling technique.

The last subject is to investigate if this new active feeding technique could be used for iron castings too. Experimental casting trials, as well as numerical simulation results, indicate that it is also functioning for iron castings; so the limiting factor will be the availability of robust equipment, which can keep up with the very fast vertical moulding machines.     

厚实球铁小件串铸工艺

介绍了厚实的球铁小件首尾相连组合串铸的工艺。多件串铸与单体铸造相比，有利于石墨化膨胀与收缩的动态叠加自补缩，冒口补缩时间分数和补缩率减小，工艺出品率提高，可以防止厚实球铁小件产生缩孔、缩松缺陷。     

消失模铸造球墨铸铁件收缩缺陷计算机模拟的处理方法

本文主要讨论了初始温度场和铸型硬度对消失模铸造球墨铸铁件收缩缺陷的影响,用计算机数据采集系统测试了消失模和空腔铸造的初始温度场分布。结果表明,两者初始温度场分布仅有微小差别,不同真空度下消失模铸型硬度的测试结果表明,消失模铸型的硬度高于普通湿型砂铸型,并且硬度分布更均匀 ,这一特点可以减少球铁石墨化膨胀引起的型壁移动,根据上述测试,确立了球铁件消失模铸造收缩缺陷的计算机模拟及预测方法,模拟结果与实际生产铸件的解剖结果吻合较好。     

聚苯乙烯泡沫塑料在普通砂型铸造中的应用

介绍了泡沫塑料在普通砂型铸造中的独特作用,如用作砂芯的心部材料,充填砂型大的吃砂量部分减少砂铁比;代替砂芯,活块减少分型;用其制作浇胃口和球铁的型内反映室等,均取得较好的效果;使用该工艺可减少砂型质量、简化工艺,是生产健全铸件,减少成本的有效途径。     

Influence of cooling rate and antimony addition content on graphite morphology and mechanical properties of a ductile iron

Cooling rate and inoculation practice can greatly affect the graphite morphology of ductile irons.In the present research,the effects of the cooling rate and antimony addition on the graphite morpholog...     

激冷球铁的正火与石墨表面结构对共析物的影响

通过对金属型离心浇注气缸套正火出现异常结果分析,发现在共析石墨化过程中,仅以石墨－奥氏体接触面的多少不足以准确反映其真实情况;反复研究、比较了几种铸铁的共析石墨化条件和结果,强调了石墨表面结构的重要性,确认了激冷球铁正火的特点,并经过试验探索,提出了改善激冷铸铁正火效果的思路。     

Effects of forced cooling on mechanical properties and fracture behavior of heavy section ductile iron

To develop materials suitable for spent-nuclear-fuel containers, the effect of forced cooling on mechanical properties and fracture toughness of heavy section ductile iron was investigated. Two cubic castings with different cooling processes were prepared: casting A was prepared in a totally sand mold, and casting B was prepared in a sand mold with two chilling blocks placed on the left and right sides of the mold. Three positions in each casting with different solidification cooling rates were chosen. In-situ SEM tensile experiment was used to observe the dynamic tensile process. Fracture analysis was conducted to study the influence of vermicular and slightly irregular spheroidal graphite on the fracture behavior of heavy section ductile iron. Results show that the tensile strength, elongation, impact toughness and fracture toughness at different positions of the two castings all decrease with decreasing cooling rate. With the increase of solidification time, the fracture mechanism of conventional casting A changes from ductile fracture to brittle fracture, and that of casting B with forced cooling changes from ductile fracture to a mixture of ductile-brittle fracture.     

大型球铁件的铸造工艺设计

介绍大型球铁件铸造工艺设计的主要原则为:加工面向下;尽量采用一个分型面;采用底注;长度大的铸件采用两端同时浇注,重大件采用拔塞浇包浇注;铸件顶部设置明冒口;充分利用石墨化膨胀补缩.用具体实例说明适合于大型球铁铸件的各种铸造工艺原理和特点,以及浇注系统设计、冒口设计和冷铁使用的要点.     

Metal-Mould Reactions in casting Aluminium-Lithium Alloys in Sodium-silicate-bonded Sand Moulds

Abstract

Metal-mould reactions in casting Al-Li alloys in sodium-silicate-bonded sand moulds have been studied by the modified Gertsman technique. Molten Al-2.7% Li alloy was poured into a bottom-gated vertical cylindrical mould cavity (150 mm x 50 mm dia) made from no-bake organic-binder-based sands. At the bottom of the mould cavity, a standard AFS three-ram sodium-silicate-bonded sand sample (the test sample) was placed vertically to provide the necessary interface for investigation. After cooling, the reaction products formed at the interface and samples from the bottom portion of the castings were collected for investigation. These were analysed to find Li loss from the casting as a result of metal-mould reactions. The casting was vertically sectioned and visually observed for appearance of blow holes, if any, while the sub-surface was studied for microhardness variation. The as-cast surface and the reaction products were also studied by SEM and X-ray diffraction analysis.

The study reveals that the Li in the molten alloy enters into vigorous chemical reaction with the sodium silicate resulting in the release of metallic sodium and formation of reaction products containing αLithium aluminium meta silicate. Li is thus lost from near the surface of the casting. Probably, the sodium released causes the gas blow holes in the sub-surface of castings due to its high vapour pressure at the working temperature.