Extruded rice flour as a gluten substitute in the poduction of rice bread

Research regarding the production of gluten-free bread (GFB) is very important nutritionally, technically and economically speaking, both to celiac patients and to developing countries who import wheat. The main technological problem in the production of GFB is obtaining a gluten substitute that is both inexpensive and capable of retaining gas during bread fermentation and baking. The use of gelatinized starch as an alternative for gluten seems promising. In this project, rice bread was made using pregelatinized extruded rice flour as a gluten substitute. Pre-gelatinized rice flours (PRF) were manufactured in a single screw Brabender extruder, varying extrusion temperature (108-192 degrees C) and the moisture of the raw material (19.2 - 24.8%), and were used in a proportion of 10 g for every 100 g of raw rice flour, in the production of gluten-free bread. Results showed that rice flour extruded at a high temperature (180 degrees) and low moisture content (20%), rendered bread with the best technological characteristics, presenting crust and crumb color similar to those of conventional wheat bread, although with volume and texture not as satisfactory in the same comparison.     

Development of bakery products for greater adult consumption based on wheat and rice flour

The present investigation was developed as a contribution to Guatemalan's elderly food and nutrition. Its main objective was to evaluate the chemical, nutritional and sensory quality of bread prepared from the partial substitution of wheat flour with rice flour. Wheat flour substitutions with rice flour in the order of 15, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60% were evaluated. Differences with the control (100% wheat bread) were found during the process of preparation, as well as texture, volume, height, weight and specific volume. Important effects in dough handling were noted specifically in the 40, 50 and 60% rice bread. Thus, a sandy texture was found in breads of higher rice levels. The bread protein quality increased with the level of substitution; however the protein quality difference between the wheat bread and the bread with 60% rice flour did not achieve statistical significance. Based on a statistical analysis of the physical properties the bread with 30 and 40% rice flour was selected, and through a preference test between these last two, the 30% rice flour bread was selected as the sample best suited to the present study's purposes. This bread was not different to wheat bread in many nutritional parameters, although in others it showed to be superior. Each serving size of bread has a weight of 80 grams (2 slices) that contributes adequate quantity of calories, protein and sodium, although a little less dietary fiber than 100% wheat bread.     

Functional characteristics of cowpea flours in foods

Functionality of legume flours as food ingredients is influenced by genetic and agronomic factors, storage, composition and processing. The processing of flour from dry cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) is a simpler technology than that utilized for oilseed flour production. A defatting step is not required because the crude fat content of cowpeas is low (∼1–2%); however, decortication (seed coat removal) is necessary if a light-colored flour is to be obtained from cultivars with dark testa or eyes. Process condition employed in the decortication of cowpeas and production of cowpea flour influence the quality of subsequent products made from the flour. Functionality of cowpea flour as an ingredient in wheat flour mixtures, akara and moin-moin (fried and steamed cowpea paste, respectively), extruded products and meat products will be reviewed. Presented at the 78th American Oil Chemists' Society Annual Meeting, May 17–21, 1987, New Orleans, LA.     

Fortification of bread with bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.). I. Flour and bread aspects

This paper deals with the incorporation of bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris, var. Tórtola) (BF) made at laboratory scale in bread enrichment, by substituting 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% wheat flour by bean flour. First, wheat and bean flours blends were prepared to study the farinological properties of these combinations. Then, breads containing bean flour in the above-mentioned proportions were made. At the 6, 8 and 10% levels, a deterioration in farinological properties of the blends, such as water absorption, developing time, weakening and W value were evident. Baking tests showed that no significant changes occurred with respect to water absorption, mixing time, weight and volume of breads, and color and texture of crumb in BF levels of 2, 4 and 6%. However, overall qualities of the breads were significantly impaired at the 8 and 10% levels.     

Sesame seed (Sesamum indicum, L.). II. Use of sesame flour in protein mixtures

The results obtained in the first part of this study demonstrated that the sesame flour protein is of reasonable quality and can be utilized, although it has a low lysine content and is rich in sulfur amino acids. Based on the initial data, the sesame flour was supplemented with other meals: "carioca" beans, pigeon pea, and soybean. Nine diets were prepared and the best combination was that of 50% sesame flour protein and 50% pigeon pea, the PER of which was 2.28. Breads were made with these systems, as follows: 100% sesame flour, 100% wheat flour, 50% sesame flour + 50% wheat flour; 30% sesame flour + 70% wheat flour; 30% sesame flour + 30% soybean flour + 40% wheat flour. These were evaluated through sensory analysis by a grading system. Good acceptance was obtained with the bread prepared with 30% sesame flour + 70% wheat flour. Its external and internal appearance, as well as its organoleptic characteristics were close to the bread, with 100% wheat flour. Sesame flour at the 50% proportion gave a bread of medium quality. The protein mixtures of sesame flour and soybean flour were well accepted. Some of the panel members reported that it had a taste somewhat like integral bread.     

Characteristics and utilization of dry roasted air-classified navy bean protein fraction

Navy beans,Phaseolus vulgaris, were dry roasted in a particle-to-particle heat exchanger, dehulled by air aspiration, pin-milled and air-classified to yield a high protein fraction. Proximate analyses, nitrogen solubility indices and oligosaccharide contents of this high protein fraction as influenced by processing parameters which affected final product temperature were determined. Farinograms of wheat/bean protein fraction composite flours were run. A high-protein bean flour fraction was selected from these dry and roasted treatments and used in product development. Quality characteristics and consumer acceptability of high-protein prototype products were evaluated. Results of this research indicate that the dry roasting process influences the characteristics of the air-classified protein fraction. Flour color, nitrogen solubility and dough mixing properties were most greatly influenced by roasting time and temperature. Increased roasting resulted in increased browning and decreased nitrogen solubility and dough mixing stability. Wheat flour bread products, substituted with low levels of high-protein bean flour, were of high quality. Presented at the 73rd AOCS annual meeting, Toronto, 1982.     

Supplementation of bakery items with high protein peanut flour

White skin peanuts were defatted with hexane to produce flours with 55–60% protein. The peanut flour was used to replace 12.5% of the wheat flour in bread, 100% of wheat flour in muffins, and 10, 15 or 50% of the wheat flour in cookies. At 12.5% levels of peanut flour, total solids, protein, moisture retention of bread after baking, and dietary fiber contents are increased without affecting loaf vol-ume. Crust color of supplemented bakery items is darker brown, texture is coarse for bread and harder in cookies, but not enough to make them unacceptable. Peanut flour muffins with a net protein content of 33–40% can serve as a high protein snack food or bakery item, possibly for patients with celiac disease who cannot tolerate wheat flour. Moisture retention in supplemented products was greater than in nonsupplemented controls. Net increase of protein in baked items varied from 4% increase for 12.5% peanut flour bread to 30% for the all-peanut flour muffins. Other physical and chemical prop-erties of these products are presented to support potential applica-tions of peanut flour as a supplement for selected food products.     

Fortification of bread with bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris). II. Nutritive value of the fortified bread

The protein value of breads containing bean flour (BF) (Phaseolus vulgaris, cv Tórtola) was tested in rats. BF replaced wheat flour by 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 per cent. Protein content was 9.3 (N x 5.7) per cent and 24.4 (N x 6.25) per cent for wheat flour and bean flour, respectively. The protein content in the control bread was 11.6%, and increased to 12.6% at the 10% level of substitution. Parameters measured were protein efficiency ratio (PER), net protein ratio (NPR), and apparent and true digestibility of the protein. PER, in the control bread, was 1.44; a slight, non-significant increase occurred up to the 10% level of substitution. The control bread showed a NPR value of 2.78, figure which also remained practically unchanged at the higher levels of replacement. Nevertheless, both apparent and true protein digestibility decreased significantly with increasing levels of substitution of WF by BF (p less than 0.05). In conclusion, substitution of WF by BF in bread did not produce the expected increase in protein quality under our experimental conditions.     

Use of flour of pejibaye fruit (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) in bread making

Trial were conducted in Costa Rica in 1984 and 1985, to determine the possibility of substituting pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) meal for wheat flour in bread. Utilization in three distinct mixtures was examined: 90:10, 85:15 and 80:20 percentage of wheat flour to percentage of pejibaye meal, respectively. The breads were made, and dough analyses were conducted at "Molinos de Costa Rica, S.A.", the country's principal flour mill. Chemical analyses were carried out at the University of Costa Rica. Results indicate a marked inverse relationship between both initial dough development time and dough strength maintenance, and the content of pejibaye meal present in the flour mixture. Consequent problems with sufficient dough expansion preclude utilization of this fruit meal for bread-making in proportions significantly greater than 10% of the total composite flour. The above-mentioned findings reflect the high nutritional value of the pejibaye fruit. Although the protein content is inversely correlated with the amount of pejibaye meal in the mixture, vitamin A and fat contents are positively correlated. This fact demonstrates that the utilization of pejibaye meal in bread-making may well be in some ways considered as a form of nutritional enrichment. As a final conclusion drawn from the results of analyses of the trials and sensory observations, the 90% wheat flour with 10% pejibaye meal mixture apparently was the optimum substitution level of the breads examined. The potential macroeconomic ramifications on the Costa Rican economy of producing and utilizing pejibaye meal in bread-making, are highly favorable.     

New property of vitamin A and beta-carotene on human iron absorption: effect on phytate and polyphenols as inhibitors of iron absorption

One hundred and seventy four human subjects were studied to find out the interaction of vitamin A or beta-carotene with the inhibitors of iron absorption, from a basal breakfast containing bread from either 100 g of precooked corn flour or 100 g of white wheat flour, 50 g of cheese and 10 g of margarine. Bread was labeled with either 55Fe or 59Fe. This bread was made from commercially flours fortified with iron as ferrous fumarate and vitamins. It was noticed that the percentage of iron absorption from the breakfast prepared with precooked corn flour given alone and with different concentrations of coffee was practically the same, while the iron absorption from the breakfast prepared from wheat flour decreased from 6% when the breakfast was given alone, to less than 2% when it was given with different concentrations of coffee. The only ingredient present in precooked corn flour and not in wheat flour was vitamin A. This difference encouraged the authors to perform further experiments using precooked corn and wheat flours fortified only with ferrous fumarate. These studies demonstrated that vitamin A inhibits the effect of the polyphenol and partially inhibits the effect phytate on iron absorption. HPLC and spectrophotometric studies demonstrated an interaction between vitamin A and iron. Other experiments, which included 100 volunteers, were performed to test the effect of vitamin A and beta-carotene on iron absorption from corn, wheat and rice. The presence of vitamin A increased iron absorption up to 3 times for rice, 2.4 times for wheat and 1.8 times for corn. beta-carotene increased absorption almost 3 times for the three cereals tested, showing that both compounds were capable of preventing the inhibitory effect of phytates on iron absorption. This information suggest that vitamin A and beta-carotene form a complex with iron keeping it soluble in the intestinal lumen and preventing the inhibitory effect of phytates and polyphenols on iron absorption.     

Supplementation of wheat flour with chickpea (Cicer arietinum) flour. I. Preparation of flours and their properties for bread making

The feasibility of adding chick-pea flour substituting part of wheat flour in yeast-leavened bread-making in order to increase the protein value, was studied. A 70% extraction chick-pea flour of commercial granulometry (150 mu) was prepared. Wheat flours of 74% and 78% extraction were then blended with 5%, 10% and 15% of chick-pea flour. Every flour and blend were subsequently analyzed to determine protein, ash, fiber, fat and maltose content, as well as sedimentation, farinogram and bread-making. Addition of chick-pea flour increased protein, fiber, ash and fat content in the blends, not causing a severe effect on quality, even at the 15% level of substitution. Blends showed an increase in maltose content, W value and bread specific volume. Furthermore, breads prepared were of good quality even without the use of maturing agents.     

Dry bean tannins: A review of nutritional implications

Tannins are one of several antinutritional factors present in dry beans and are located mainly in the seed coat or testa. The tannin content of dry beans ranges from 0.0 to 2.0% depending on the bean species and color of the seed coat. Many high tannin bean varieties are of lower nutritional quality than low tannin varieties of beans. Naturally occurring food legume tannins are reported to interact with proteins (both enzyme and nonenzyme proteins) to form tannin-protein complexes resulting in inactivation of digestive enzymes and protein insolubility. Both in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that bean tannins decrease protein digestibility, either by inactivating digestive enzymes or by reducing the susceptibility of the substrate proteins after forming complexes with tannins and absorbed ionizable iron. Other deleterious effects of tannins include a lowered feed efficiency and growth depression in experimental animals. The antinutritional activity of bean tannins can be reduced by processing (1 or a combination of 2 or more methods), for example dehulling, soaking, cooking and germination. Genetic selection also may help in breeding varieties low in tannins. Potential chemical treatments such as use of tannin complexing agents are discussed. Presented at the AOCS Meeting, Dallas, Texas, April 1984.     

Surfactants as replacements for natural lipids in bread baked from defatted wheat flour

Petroleum ether (PE) extracted 1.00% total free lipids (0.70% nonpolar and 0.30% polar) and 2-propanol (PrOH) extracted 1.36% total free and bound lipids (0.73% nonpolar and 0.63% polar) from wheat flour; the lipid fractions were characterized by thin layer chromatography. PE- or PrOH-defatted flours were baked after reconstitution with total, nonpolar, or polar wheat flour lipids; or with equivalent amounts of nonionic sucrose monopalmitate (SMP), ethoxylated monoglycerides (EMG) — each with a hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of 14.0 or anionic sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) — with an HLB value of 9.0. Defatted flours supplemented with surfactants alone or in combination with wheat flour lipids were used in bread with no-shortening and with 3%-shortening. The importance of the polar flour lipids in breadmaking was verified. The lipids in wheat flour were essential for maximizing the beneficial effects of shortening on breadmaking quality. Nonionic SMP or EMG completely replaced both PE-extractable wheat flour free total lipids ( or their non-polar or polar fractions) and 3% shortening; nonionic surfactants with high HLB were better than the anionic SSL for replacing free flour lipids. No surfactant completely replaced unfractionated PrOH-extracted lipids (free + bound) and shortening or total polar flour lipids (free + bound). All surfactants, especially anionic SSL, added with PrOH-extracted polar lipids improved the overall bread-making properties of the PrOH-defatted flour both in the absence and in the presence of shortening. Presented at the AOCS Meeting, New York, May 1977     

Nixtamalization cooking characteristics of 11 maize varieties

In the present study, 11 maize varieties were analyzed for their nixtamalization cooking quality. The 11 varieties were grown in the same locality and in the same year. The samples were evaluated for their physical characteristics, such as moisture content averaging 13.3%, average 1000 kernel weight (312.5 g), grain hardness through density (1.28 g/ml) and percent floaters (9.5%). These data indicated that all maize varieties had a hard endosperm which is recommended for the nixtamalization cooking process. The 11 varieties were formed on the average by 5.7% seed coat, 11.5% germ and 82.8% endosperm. The low seed coat content suggest a low solids loss during processing. Cooking quality evaluation was done by applying a standard lime cooking procedure to all varieties. An average solid loss of 3.2% was measured, with 0.8% of seed coat still attached to the endosperm. Water absorption at the end of cooking was 40.8% without soaking and 46.9% at the end of soaking. Nixtamal moisture was 47.9% after soaking and only 41.5% at the end of cooking. Cooking time with soaking for 50% moisture in the grain varied from 69 to 122 minutes at 1500 meters over sea level. The cooked grain was dried with hot air and ground however, the particle size obtained was not as that in commercial nixtamalized maize flour. However, the cooking quality parameters to make dough and tortillas were acceptable, with a penetration index of hydrated flour of 178.6 mm, pH 7.97, water absorption index (WAI) of 3.23 g gel/g flour and 4.11% water solubility index (WSI). All flours from the 11 varieties of maize gave acceptable tortillas as evaluated by physical characteristics and sensory quality. However of the 11 varieties 7 including the control were superior for nixtamalization cooking quality.     

Composition and potential contribution of iron, calcium and zinc of bread and pasta made with wheat and amaranth flours

Amaranth, a traditional american crop that is nowadays given renewed importance, has good food potential value. The minerals contributed by the grain are quantitatively important. However, as the flour is obtained by total grinding of the grain, this process leads to the presence of anti-nutritional components, such as fitates, and therefore, the evaluation of the actual availability of the minerals of nutritional interest becomes necessary. The process of bread fermentation, plus the addition of fitases and enhancers of mineral availability such as citric and ascorbic acid, might improve mineral bioavailability. The objective of this work was to assess protein, ash, lipids and total dietary fiber content and evaluate the concentration and dialyzability of Fe, Zn and Ca (as mineral bioavailability indicator) in bread and pasta 100% wheat, and bread and pasta obtained by replacing 20% wheat flour (WF) with whole amaranth flour (WAF). Ascorbic acid (AA), citric acid (CA) and fitase were used as mineral bioavailability enhancers. The potential contribution of each mineral (PC) was calculated as each mineral concentration times its dialyzability. In 80:20 bread an increase of total dietary fiber and minerals, compared to 100% wheat products was observed. A maximum FePC in 80:20 bread was obtained with CA and fitase (0.55mg%). In pasta, the maximum effect was observed with CA (0.07 mg%). The CaPC was maximum in 80:20 pasta with CA (16.72 mg%). The greatest ZnPC was found in 80:20 bread with CA and fitase (0.40 mg%). The introduction of the WAF in fermented baked products with addition of CA and fitase allows to obtain nutritional advantages.     

Supplementation of wheat flour with chickpea (Cicer arietinum) flour. II. Chemical composition and biological quality of breads made with blends of the same

Experimental bread made of wheat flour complemented with 5, 10 and 15% chick-pea flour was studied, using wheat bread as control. Samples were analyzed for their proximal chemical composition and amino acids content. Crude fiber and protein increased from 0.36% to 0.55%, and from 14% to 17.6%, respectively, when 15% chick-pea flour was added. The lysine content increased as the level of supplementation was raised. Biological quality of proteins was measured in rats as protein efficiency ratio (PER) as well as apparent digestibility resulting in an increase of PER values from 0.90 to 1.34 and small variations in bread protein digestibility. Bread nutritive value was significantly improved by adding chick-pea flour.     

Requirements for foods containing soy protein in the food for peace program

Under the Food for Peace Program, whole grains, milled wheat flour, milled rice, soybean oil, soybean flour, nonfat dry milk, soyacontaining blended food supplements, and soya-fortified processed foods are provided by the U.S. to needy people abroad to alleviate malnutrition. These commodities are used in maternal/child health programs, school feeding, food for work projects and disaster relief. The wide diversity of nutritional requirements and traditional food preferences has led to development of nine soya-containing food types, which are used in the PL-480 Title II donation program as blended food supplements or fortified processed foods. Research studies have led to the development of product specifications. Blended food supplements include the standardized mixtures of corn-soya-milk (CSM), instant CSM, wheat-soy blend and whey-soy drink mix. These foods, developed to fulfill the nutritional requirements of preschool children, contain from 17.5 to 29.7% either toasted-defatted or equivalent full-fat soya flour, along with vitamins and minerals. In addition, 4–19% soya oil is added to improve caloric density. These products contain 19 or 20% minimum protein and 6 or 19% minimum fat content. Fortified processed foods include soya-fortified bulgur (SFB), soya-fortified bread wheat flour (SFWF), soya-fortified cornmeal (SFCM), soya-fortified sorghum grits (SFSG), and soya-fortified rolled oats (SFRO). These foods contain toasted soya flour, grits, or flakes added at 12–15% levels. Fortified foods are generally consumed by people other than infants.     

Elaboration, by linear programming, of new products from cereals and legumes

The differing contents of essential amino acids in cereals and legumes bring about an overall increase in protein quality when these foods are consumed together. This study describes a least cost formulation method for preparing products based on cereals and legumes using linear programming. The mixture was formulated under different constraints; from a nutritional standpoint, a given amino acid pattern, and another one on a technological feasibility constraint, which depends on the type of product to be elaborated. From the formulation based on wheat, chick-pea, sorghum, and soybean flours, three products were developed: bread, tortillas and cookies; from these, bread was selected for further evaluation. The product was chemically evaluated by proximate analysis composition, and amino acids were determined by HPLC. Biological evaluation was performed by the PER and RPV methods, obtaining a PER of 1.69 for the developed bread product, and of 0.68 for the control bread. The RPV for the developed product was 64.31% of lactoalbumin and 23% for the control bread, which represents an increase of 41%. The sensory evaluation results did not indicate significant differences in taste, texture, color or overall acceptability of the developed bread product as compared to the control.