Appreciating Institutional Complexity in Water Governance Dynamics: A Case from the Murray-Darling Basin,Australia

Water managing systems are becoming more complex as new institutional arrangements are created in response to a changing climate. Our inquiry centred on the ‘water managing system’ within a nested set of Australian water governance regimes, including relevant local, regional, state and national governance regimes. New institutions in national and state systems, seemingly intended to reduce complexity through centralisation or integration, only increase complexity by adding to the existing mix of institutional arrangements. This complexity can reduce the effectiveness of water managing organisations by increasing administrative burden, creating high costs of entry for new staff and leading to confusion in communications with external stakeholders. Regional water managers deal with this complexity by drawing on relational capital built from long-term engagement in the water managing system. However, relational capital is difficult to build and easy to destroy, thus this ‘soft’ capacity is under threat from shifts in decision making power and of resources out of regional water governance systems. Institutional innovation is therefore required to create opportunities to build relational capital in order to effectively manage natural resources at the regional level as coupled socio-ecological systems.     

Managing Cumulative Impacts: Groundwater Reform in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia

The cumulative impacts of incremental development present governments all over the world with major difficulties. Well-intended strategic approaches often fail, in whole or in part. In Australia, a joint Federal/State agreement in 1992 initiated reforms of State environmental legislation and policy, which led to the Council of Australian Governments Water Reform Framework 1994—an agreement to introduce comprehensive water reforms targeted at both financial and environmental issues. The Murray-Darling Basin, Australia’s largest catchment, overlaps four States plus the small Australian Capital Territory. In 1995 pressing problems of land and water degradation, and the decline of widespread and important environmental values in the Basin, led only to a cap (an administrative limit or ceiling) on river water extraction, even though the importance of the surface water/groundwater connection was evident. Moreover, State Governments have been extremely slow to implement core groundwater reforms added to the Framework in 1996—with some important elements not yet implemented after 12 years. This delay, combined with the failure of States to implement commitments to the precautionary management of natural resources, has magnified the environmental and economic crisis facing the Basin. This crisis appears likely to worsen if current climate change predictions eventuate. Recent initiatives by the Australian Government acknowledge past procrastination, and provide a new administrative framework—an approach will only work if backed by political intelligence and will-power, and good-will and cooperation amongst State premiers. These factors have been absent in the past. The paper concludes with key recommendations aimed at comprehensive and integrated management of the cumulative impacts of incremental water-related development on a catchment-by-catchment basis.     

Water Reform and the Federal System in the Murray-Darling Basin

Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) is now well advanced on a major program of water reform to reduce threats to resource security, halt the ongoing decline in environmental conditions and improve the capacity to deal with climate change. Management of the MDB has been a focus for conflict between the Australian governments since federation in 1901. Within the region water is still managed with a high degree of autonomy by state governments but through implementation of the Water Act 2007 the Commonwealth (national) government is now asserting a basin-wide coordinating role for the first time. This paper places water management in the MDB within the larger context of the history of the evolution of the federal system in Australia and highlights a number of factors inherent in such systems that make it difficult to strengthen integration. It also suggests that the Commonwealth Environmental Water Holder, created by the Water Act, is emerging as a powerful new institutional force in the MDB even though this was not an intended consequence when the Act was designed.     

墨累-达令河河流健康与社会经济健康之间的权衡

墨累-达令河流域遭受了几十年的环境退化,包括水资源过度分配导致水生态系统受损。几十年来,澳大利亚政府致力于重大合作计划,以恢复湿地和河流生态环境。最近的改革包括成立墨累-达令河流域管理局(MDBA)和联邦环境水务部(CEWH),并根据水法(2008年)开展流域规划。墨累-达令河流域管理局目前正在最后敲定墨累-达令河流域地表水和地下水的可持续引水限额(SDLs)规划,以恢复河流和湿地健康。通过水市场回购方式,CEWH已回收了相当数量的满足环境流量目标的水量。然而,尚需更多的水回收,以使拟议的可持续引水限额(SDL)达年均径流量2 750 GL的目标,这大约使历史水平灌溉水量减少19%。总体而言,水回购对经济的影响较小,但对灌溉农业区域影响较大。分析流域规划的社会经济和环境的成本和效益面临相当大的挑战:①科学技术水平的差距以及对经济和生态系统缺乏全面了解;②不同测量单位的应用(货币与状况指数);③确定合适的时空尺度的生态目标,采用系统方法进行生态评估和监测;④水文变化仅是生态变化驱动因子之一,因此只能估计水文和生态变化之间的响应关系;⑤气候变异和气候变化的不确定性为成本和效益量化提出了额外挑战。     

Simplified Monthly Hydrology and Irrigation Water Use Model to Explore Sustainable Water Management Options in the Murray-Darling Basin

We aimed to provide whole-of-basin simulations of flows and diversions in the Murray-Darling Basin for economic and policy analysis. We describe a model based on a subdivision of the basin into 58 catchments. In each catchment, the monthly runoff, river flow and irrigation demand are modelled as lumped processes. This is the first single model of the whole of the Murray-Darling Basin. The model was calibrated using monthly flow and annual diversion records, both by trial and error and using an automated method. We use the model to examine the impact on the flow and diversions in the Murray-Darling Basin of proposed diversion reductions and climate change. The diversion reductions return water to the environment, increasing river flows below the main irrigation areas. However, a middle-of-the-range climate change projection may result in a 13 % decrease in total flows in 2030, which offsets the enhancement to flows gained by diversion reductions.     

墨累-达令河流域管理的关键--汇流区域一体化管理

一个世纪以来,澳大利亚各级政府积极致力于墨累-达令河流域地表水资源的管理,本文通过对过去100年内墨累-达令河流域管理发展情况、促进发展的主要因素和相应的制度变化情况以及保证水资源可持续利用的汇流区域一体化管理的形成过程的总结,提出了河流管理状况的基本评价标准,指出了汇流区域一体化管理过程中将遇到的主要挑战.     

Thermal Convection in the Great Artesian Basin,Australia

High groundwater temperatures at shallow levels have been recorded inthe Great Artesian Basin, Australia. In the most part of the Basingeothermal gradients are above the global average. It is suggestedthat geothermal gradients determine the groundwater flow patterns inthe Basin aquifers. Six extensive regions where Rayleigh numbersexceed the critical value for the onset of thermal convection areidentified. Further numerical experiments with parameters derived fromfield observations show that thermal convection can actually occur inthese regions. The identified convective regions are large in size (ofthe order of 100 km horizontally) and coincide with importantgroundwater management zones. Within the convective regions thegroundwater flow is not horizontal but has a significant verticalcomponent. Thermally-induced vertical flows result in intensive masstransfer within and between aquifer layers. In the groundwatermanagement context, the latter means a higher degree of vulnerabilityof the Basin aquifers. Numerical models with incorporated couplingbetween heat and mass transfer processes are shown to be appropriatefor the impact assessment of management strategies in the Basin.     

Evidence of Land-use Controlled Water Storage Depletion in Hai River Basin,North China

Although critical for human sustenance, irrational land use could cause land resources depletion, environmental degradation, food insecurity and social instability. This study uses Landsat images (06/09/1979 and 12/08/2009) with historical precipitation data (1955–2012) to analyze land use change in relation to surface water storage change in Hai River Basin, North China. Based on analysis in ENVI (Environment for Visualizing Images) and ArcMap, land area under water in 1979 is 1.8 % and that in 2009 is 0.6 % of the 23 826 km² study area. Although the rate of precipitation decline in 1955–2012 is 4.41 mm/year, it is almost the same for 1979 (582 mm) and 2009 (564 mm). This suggests that drought or flooding has no significant effect on the water storage change. For 1979–2009, land area under forest and grass decreases respectively by 54.2 % and 70.7 %. Then that under settlement, farmland and others increases respectively by 64.8 %, 56.0 % and 63.6 %. The loss of land area under water is 64.6 %, which is more the effect of land use change and the related water use in the region. Irrespectively, more water-efficient land use measures could ensure the sustainability and availability of water resources for future use in the predominantly agrarian semiarid region.     

The Debate over Municipal Water Pricing: Evidence from Kolkata,India

Steps to rationalize the municipal water pricing system have raised various debates in Kolkata, India. The primary point of debate is whether the age-old direct subsidy to a water system benefiting all users should continue or a volumetric charge on water usage should be imposed. Apart from this, issues such as a transitional phase pricing strategy, specific tariff structure, support for the poor and management options are widely debated by those that favour rationalization. The present paper examines the behaviour of 500 households of Kolkata, India, and uses the information to resolve the issues of contention. It is estimated that a uniform volumetric charge of Rs. 4 per kilolitre can be imposed in the phase of transition.     

The Economic Impact of Water Evaporation Losses from Water Reservoirs in the Segura Basin,SE Spain

In this paper we assess the economic impact of evaporation losses from great dams (GDs) and on-farm agricultural water reservoirs (AWRs) in the semi-arid Segura River basin, SE Spain. Evaporation losses from water reservoirs reduce the high water use efficiency reached in agriculture by means of other techniques such as well-built water pipes or drip irrigation and have a substantial economic impact. Evaporation losses have been calculated using Class-A pan evaporation data and pan coefficients, whereas their economic impact has been assessed using an economic mathematical programming model that simulates land and water allocation in the different irrigated areas of the basin. Our results show that annual evaporation from GDs and AWRs represents 8.7% of the water currently available for irrigation in the Segura basin. The economic impact of such losses has been estimated in a reduction of 6.3% of the value of agricultural production and 5.4% of the farm net margin. As less water is effectively available for farmers the basin’s irrigated area is reduced in a 7.5%. This impact is greater, in both absolute and relative terms, in the areas accommodating the most intensive and profitable irrigated agriculture. The applied methodology and results could be useful to regional water agencies and collective irrigation schemes for future planning and management, including the assessment of alternatives for reducing evaporation from reservoirs.     

The Yellow River Basin: Water Accounting,Water Accounts,and Current Issues

Abstract

There is increasing recognition of the problems facing China in meeting the growing water demand in the Yellow River basin, the “cradle of Chinese Civilization” and a critically important agricultural and industrial region. Meaningful debate on the range and relative costs of options available to policy-makers in addressing the problem depend fundamentally on an accurate understanding of basin water resources. Unfortunately, the ability of outsiders to participate in the de bate and for Chinese, with their long history of water management, to contribute to similar discussions elsewhere in the world is hindered to some extent by a lack of understanding of differences in water accounting systems and concepts. This paper attempts to address this problem by describing the water accounting system used in the Yellow River basin and elsewhere in China. The paper shows that the primary difference between water accounting methodologies in the Yellow River and those typically applied elsewhere is related to supply accounting in general and groundwater accounting in particular. Although not currently included in its water accounting system, Chinese concepts of environmental water use, when included, will also differ substantially from those familiar to outside researchers. In terms of actual Yellow River balances, the paper highlights the apparent declining trend in basin rainfall and runoff and the dramatic growth in industrial and domestic water use. Together declining supply and rising demand will increasingly cause policy-makers to face hard choices in assessing their water planning options. These choices will only become more difficult as managers in the Yellow River, as elsewhere in the world, try to incorporate ecological needs in the water accounting equation.     

Transjurisdictional Water Pollution Disputes and Measures of Resolution: Examples from the Yellow River Basin,China

Abstract

Transjurisdictional water pollution problems are increasing in number and are becoming a significant governance problem in China. A large number of transjurisdictional water pollution disputes that have far-reaching social effects are occurring between provinces and are also frequent between municipalities, counties, towns, and villages. In this paper, several transjurisdictional water pollution cases in China, particularly in the Yellow River Basin, are discussed. The problems and causes for transjurisdictional water pollution are addressed. There are many causes for transjurisdictional water pollution problems although the key reasons are the rapid economic development, the failure of local authorities to enforce the existing laws and to implement administrative decisions, as well as inadequacies in the legal framework. Other factors include poor technology, shortage of funds, the institutional division of jurisdiction and management over water quantity and quality both administratively and legally, the lack of transparency in the decision-making process, insufficient public participation and information disclosure, poor communication, and lack of involvement of stakeholders in basin or sub-basin organizations.     

Water Values: Participatory Water Ecosystem Services Assessment in the Arno River Basin,Italy

Water Resources Management - Water-related Ecosystem Services (WES), namely the multiple benefits that humans can obtain from water or water-related functions of an ecosystem, constitute a useful...     

论构建塔里木河流域水权市场

水权市场是在明确初始水权的基础上对流域水资源的二次配置,可以提高水资源的利用效率,实现流域水资源的可持续利用。由于水资源的自然地理特点和社会经济属性,水权市场具有广泛性、区域性和层次性。构建塔里木河流域水权市场要依据水权市场的一般特征和塔里木河流域的具体特点确定市场主体、客体和市场管理者等组成要素。在具体构建措施方面,根据塔里木河流域的特点,应包括确立初始水权、完善蓄水输水设施、制定水权市场管理规章制度和保证生态水权、缩减农业水权等。     

Mitigating the Water Footprint of Export Cut Flowers from the Lake Naivasha Basin, Kenya

Kenya??s cut-flower industry has been praised as an economic success as it contributed an annual average of US$ 141 million foreign exchange (7?% of Kenyan export value) over the period 1996?C2005 and about US$ 352 million in 2005 alone. The industry also provides employment, income and infrastructure such as schools and hospitals for a large population around Lake Naivasha. On the other hand, the commercial farms have been blamed for causing a drop in the lake level, polluting the lake and for possibly affecting the lake??s biodiversity. The objective of this study is to quantify the water footprint within the Lake Naivasha Basin related to cut flowers and analyse the possibility to mitigate this footprint by involving cut-flower traders, retailers and consumers overseas. The water footprint of one rose flower is estimated to be 7?C13 litres. The total virtual water export related to export of cut flowers from the Lake Naivasha Basin was 16?Mm³/yr during the period 1996?C2005 (22?% green water; 45?% blue water; 33?% grey water). Our findings show that, although the decline in the lake level can be attributed mainly to the commercial farms around the lake, both the commercial farms and the smallholder farms in the upper catchment are responsible for the lake pollution due to nutrient load. The observed decline in the lake level and deterioration of the lake??s biodiversity calls for sustainable management of the basin through pricing water at its full cost and other regulatory measures. Pricing water at full marginal cost is important, but the conditions in Kenya are unlikely to result in serious steps to full-cost pricing, since many farmers resist even modest water price increases and government is lacking means of enforcement. We propose an alternative in this study that can be implemented with a focus on sustainable water use in flower farming around Lake Naivasha alone. The proposal involves a water-sustainability agreement between major agents along the cut-flower supply chain and includes a premium to the final product at the retailer end of the supply chain. Such a ??water sustainability premium?? will raise awareness among flower consumers and??when channelled back to the farmers??facilitate the flower farms to install the necessary equipment and implement the right measures to use water in a sustainable manner. The collected premiums will generate a fund that can be used for financing measures to reduce the water footprint and to improve watershed management.     

Historical aspects of irrigation agriculture and river regulation in the Murraay-Darling Basin,Australia

River regulation in Australia is a feature of the last on hundred years. Irrigation farms were established along the River Murray in the 1880's and on the Murrumbidgee in the first quarter of the twentieth century. These demonstrated that such labour-intensive types of farming were unprofitable in Australia. The additional profits obtained by irrigation farmers were not sufficient to pay for the reservoirs and distributary works required and these had to be paid for by the State. Water was sold to farmers at a price which was only sufficient to maintain the projects. Political pressure led to a further increase in the consturction of reservoirs and the area irrigated in the Murray-Darling basin expanded from 0·6 million hectaers in 1945 to 1·6 million hectares in 1979. As irrigation practices improved, farm profits increased, but the price of water continued to be based on the cost of maintaining the projects. This led to increased profits being built into the price of irrigated land. Low water prices encouraged farmers to over-irrigate and aggravated the problem of rising water tables and salination. It is argued herein, that the efficiency of water usage in irrigation could be improved by transferring the existing water rights from the state of irrigators, and making them transferable from one irrigator to another or from irrigators to other users at prices negotiated in a free market. Such a system would ensure that water was put to its optimum use, reducing wastage and minimizing detrimental effects of over-use. The water price established in such a market could be used to calculate whether the marginal returns from irrigation and other uses were high enough to justify the construction of new projects.     

Water Resources Assessment and Regional Virtual Water Potential in the Turpan Basin,China

Located in the centre of the Eurasian Continent, the Turpan Basin, as the second deepest lowland in the world, is extremely short of water resources. Aimed at this key scientific issue, this paper based on years of meteorological and hydrological observation data, carried out a scientific calculation and evaluation of surface and groundwater resources in the Turpan Basin, and then, with the help of modified Penman formula, calculated the virtual water potential in the basin in 2004. The results show that the average total usable surface water resources per year in the last decade were about 6.673×10⁸ m³, while adduction volume of surface water in 2003 was about 4.94×10⁸ m³, which means that most of the region has reached or approached the limit of water resources and, as a result serious crises and constraints on the development of the basin were thus caused. The exploitation content of groundwater in the Turpan Basin in 2003 was about 6.12×10⁸ m³, which has basically reached its upper limit, and the ground water level has fallen about 10~40 m in the Turpan Basin in recent years. The daily reference crop water requirement in the Turpan Basin in 2004 was about 1,053.39 mm, and the total virtual water potential contained in six main crops was about 5.25 ×10⁸ m³ in 2004. All these showed that research works on scientific assessment of water resources and regional virtual water strategy have great significance for the best social, ecological, economic benefits and regional sustainable development of the Turpan Basin.     

黄河流域用水演变特征及水资源情势识别研究

明晰黄河用水演变特征、探究黄河未来水资源情势,对流域有效管理水资源、合理制定规划方案、优化布局重大水利工程具有重要意义.利用多种方法开展了黄河流域用水演变特征分析、用水变化影响因素判别及未来水资源开发利用情势识别研究,结果表明:黄河流域1980—2016年用水增长主要为城镇生活用水,37 a增加了37.0亿m3;201...     

Managing Surface Water Contamination in Nagoya, Japan: An Integrated Water Basin Management Decision Framework

The water quality of rivers in Japan has received greater attention in recent years due to a number of factors, including human-induced land subsidence and an increase in water demand. Surface waters are adversely affected by high frequency, low level risks (such as the continuous release of hazardous substances) and less frequent, high impact risks (such as the release of chemicals due to natural disasters or industrial accidents). This paper puts forth an integrated Water Basin Management (WBM) decision framework to study the latter: these relatively infrequent, but often catastrophic hazards, are less well-studied than the more familiar high frequency, low level risks. The six main components of this WBM decision framework involve (a) determining possible threats to surface waters; (b) identifying surface waters most at risk to contamination; (c) identifying weaknesses (gaps) in current monitoring systems; (d) using accident analysis to determine proactive WBM; (e) analyzing the temporal-spatial impact of policies on water basins, (f) designing new policies and approaches for integrated WBM. Japan's recently published Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) is used to develop a WBM decision framework for managing surface water contamination in Nagoya, Japan. Participatory surface water management is emphasized in order to achieve a holistic and sustainable WBM decision making process.