Modification of residual stress by post-weld vibration

Abstract

Previous studies have suggested that welding residual stresses can be reduced by the application of controlled vibration. In the present study welded specimens were processed after being cooled to room temperature, with varying amplitude of applied stress and time of vibration. An increase in the applied stress led to a significant decrease in the residual stresses. The effect of time of vibration was found to be very small for a lower range of applied stresses (<230 MPa); an increase in the time of vibration had no influence on residual stresses. At higher applied stresses (>230 MPa), the residual stresses were found to redistribute with increasing time of vibration. It is shown that the energy concept of the vibratory stress relief mechanism was not validated.     

剩余强度模型对瓦楞纸板疲劳振动的分析研究

对瓦楞纸板进行疲劳振动试验,测定分析振动次数、加速度对瓦楞纸板塑性变形、承载能力的影响,并与未经振动材料进行比较.基于疲劳累积损伤理论中的剩余强度模型,提出瓦楞纸板疲劳振动后剩余承载能力衰减模型.疲劳加载后瓦楞纸板的剩余承载能力,不仅与载荷的循环数有关,还与疲劳加载的加速度峰值和频率有关.拟合了振动频率20Hz、加速度2.0g振动试验后,瓦楞纸板的剩余承载能力与振动次数之间的关系曲线.结果表明,随着振动次数和振动加速度的增加,瓦楞纸板剩余屈服应力减小,经过80000次振动后,其承载能力下降了38.88%.为了确保实现预期包装效果,在进行包装设计时,应考虑到瓦楞纸板的疲劳性能.     

激振频率对焊接残余应力的影响

系统研究了不同激振频率对焊接残余应力降低程度的影响．以等厚矩形低碳钢板焊接件为典型试件，利用试验模态分析技术测定试件的固有频率和振型，分别采用不同频率激励试件振动，并用盲孔应力释放法测定振动前后试件焊接残余应力，结果表明：激振频率不同，焊接残余应力的降低程度不同；以试件的固有频率振动时降低应力幅度比非固有频率大，低阶固有频率的振动降低应力幅度比高阶固有频率大；试件残余应力降低幅度随激振频率变化的趋势与试件幅频特性曲线的变化趋势表现出一定的相似性．同时，试件的振型对焊接残余应力的降低幅度也有较大影响．     

Susceptibility of 7050-T7451 electron beam welded specimens to stress corrosion

Susceptibility to stress corrosion tests were carried out on electron beam welded specimens made from 7050-T7451 aluminium alloy. As a comparison, specimens made from base material were tested too. The resistance of the welded material was high: the tensile properties were only slightly lower than those of the base material. After 30 day exposure to a corrosive environment (alternate immersion in a 3.5% NaCl solution), the tensile properties of the welded material were considerably reduced, while the same properties were only slightly affected in the base material. The combined effect of stress and corrosion was only slightly detrimental for the base material and very detrimental for the welded material. At the lowest stress level tested, about 25% of the ultimate stress, the welded specimens failed after a mean life of 90 days. Considerable residual stresses associated with the welding process were measured in a plate. A test was performed to verify the possibility of stress corrosion cracking promoted by the welding residual stresses. In actual fact, no cracks were observed, but the corrosion rate increased, particularly in the areas affected by the higher residual stresses.     

High cycle fatigue analysis in presence of residual stresses by using a continuum damage mechanics model

This study attempts to predict the high cycle fatigue life of steel butt welds by numerical method. At first, FE simulation of plate butt welding is carried out to obtain the weld-induced residual stresses employing sequentially coupled three-dimensional (3-D) thermo-mechanical FE formulation. Then, a nonlinear damage cumulative model for multiaxial high cycle fatigue based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM), which can incorporate the effect of welding residual stresses, is derived using FE technique. The high cycle fatigue damage model is applied to the butt welds subjected to cyclic fatigue loading to calculate the fatigue life considering the residual stresses, and the computed total fatigue life which takes into account the fatigue crack initiation and the propagation is compared with the test result. In addition, the fatigue life prediction of the welds without considering the residual stresses is implemented to investigate the influence of welding residual stresses on the fatigue performance. The FE results show that the high cycle fatigue damage model proposed in this work can predict the fatigue life of steel butt welds with high accuracy, and welding residual stresses should be taken into account in assessing the fatigue life of the welds.     

Numerical investigation on welding residual stresses in a PWR pressurizer safety/relief nozzle

This paper presents finite element simulation results of residual stresses in dissimilar metal welds of a PWR pressurizer safety/relief nozzle. The present results are believed to be significant in two aspects. The first one is to consider the effect of the presence of similar metal welds on resulting residual stresses. The second one is the mitigation effect of the overlay welding thickness on residual stresses. After dissimilar metal welding, tensile residual stresses are present both at the inner surface and at the outer surface of dissimilar metal welds. Adjacent similar metal welding, however, decreases residual stresses to compressive ones at the inner surface of dissimilar metal welds, possibly due to the bending mechanism caused radial contraction of the weld. At the outer surface of dissimilar metal welds, similar metal welding increases residual stresses. Overlay welding further decreases residual stresses at the inner surface of dissimilar and similar metal welds, but increases slightly residual stresses at the outer surface.     

弹性车体垂向运行平稳性一系最优控制研究

采用基于轨道谱及包括轮轴间时延预瞄的最优控制算法,在一系悬挂中加入主动控制,设计其主动控制规律,从降低轨道至车体振动的传递入手,对铁道车辆弹性车体垂向动力学模型进行仿真分析。结果表明,该最优控制算法对车辆系统的振动有较好的抑制作用;可以改善轨道至弹性车体中部的振动加速度传递率,在控制车体刚体振动的同时,也能抑制整车的弹性振动;最优控制算法对车辆系统的1Hz左右的低频振动、以及包含人体垂向振动敏感频域(4Hz-8Hz)的4Hz~10Hz频率内的振动衰减明显,但对车体高频振动作用不大。并与二系主动悬挂系统比较,发现一系主动悬挂能更有效的控制车体的弹性振动,且抑制的频率范围较宽,车辆运行平稳性更佳,为今后弹性车体减振措施选择提供依据。     

An investigation of the relaxation of static stresses in chromium-nickel steel specimens in cyclic loading

A multifactorial experiment on relaxation of stresses in chromium-nickel steel specimens in static and asymmetric cyclic loading with frequencies of 35 Hz and 10 kHz is described. With use of the method of experiment planning mathematical models describing the reduction in stresses and accumulation of plastic deformation in relation to the maximum stress, frequency and amplitude of the cyclic load, and temperature were obtained. Certain practical recommendations on use of the results obtained in the process of technical action for the purpose of reducing residual stresses, particularly by the vibration method, are proposed.Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 3, pp. 39–43, March, 1990.     

Comparison Between Using Longitudinal and Shear Waves in Ultrasonic Stress Measurement to Investigate the Effect of Post-Weld Heat-Treatment on Welding Residual Stresses

Fusion welding is a joining process widely used in the industry. However, undesired residual stresses are produced once the welding process is completed. Post-weld heat-treatment (PWHT) is extensively employed in order to relieve the welding residual stresses. In this study, effect of PWHT time and temperature on the residual stresses of a ferritic stainless steel is investigated. Residual stress distributions in eight welded specimens were measured by using an ultrasonic method. Ultrasonic stress measurement is a nondestructive method based on acoustoelasticity law, which correlates mechanical stresses with velocity of an ultrasonic wave propagating within the subject material. The ultrasonic wave employed could be longitudinal or shear wave produced by the longitudinal (normal) or transverse (shear) transducers, respectively. Ultrasonic stress measurements based on longitudinal waves use longitudinal critically refracted (L_CR) waves in this direction, while shear wave methods use an ultrasonic birefringence phenomenon. The results show that the effect of PWHT can be successfully inferred by both longitudinal and shear wave methods, but the former is found to be more sensitive to stress variation. Furthermore, the distribution of subsurface residual stresses is found to be more distinguishable when the L_CR method is employed.     

Interaction of residual stress with mechanical loading in an austenitic stainless steel

Single edge notched bend, SEN(B), fracture specimens fabricated from AISI Type 316H austenitic stainless steel and containing a residual stress field were used to quantify the interaction of a residual stress field on subsequent fracture behaviour when the specimens were subjected to an applied load. Autogenous welding (where no additional filler material is used) was used to impart the residual stress field following a procedure which had been extensively characterised numerically and experimentally. Crack growth resistant curves were obtained for the specimens, and for similar specimens containing no residual stress field. It was observed that the residual stress field had negligible impact on the fracture behaviour of the specimens, in contrast to recently reported work which demonstrated a large influence of a residual stress field when the test specimens were fabricated from a ferritic steel. A numerical programme was conducted to consider the results in the context of a structural integrity assessment. The test results were assessed using both the procedures described in R6, a well-known structural integrity assessment procedure, and by explicit calculation of a modified J -integral via two-dimensional cracked body finite element analysis. It was shown that the assessments were pessimistic, all predicting an influence of the residual stress field on fracture when none was observed experimentally.     

Development and comparison of residual stress measurement on welds by various methods

Abstract

Residual stress constitutes an integral part of the total stress acting on any component in service. It is imperative to determine residual stress to estimate the life of critical engineering components, especially those that are welded. The stresses caused by non-uniform temperature distribution due to welding and the effect of these multiaxial stresses upon service performance are discussed. A controlled thermal severity test (CTS) was performed on mild steel plates bolted together, with anchor welds deposited on opposite sides. After cooling, bithermal and trithermal test welds were deposited one after the other. Varying welding stresses were deliberately introduced by using different thicknesses of both plates to change the thermal severity numbers (TSN). The main experimental technique used here to determine the magnitude and nature of residual stress is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD). It was utilised to develop and standardise other techniques. The XRD method is based on the peak shiftin the diffraction profile due to the presence of stress using a sin² ψ method. The peak shift is determined by orienting the sample at different angles ± ψ to the incident X-ray beam. The semidestructive technique of hole drilling and use of a strain gauge was also employed to determine residual stress in CTS specimens. The magnitude, nature, and direction of principal stresses were determined by relieving stresses through incremental blind hole drilling and measuring strain values at each step. The surface displacements arising due to hole drilling can also be determined by laser holography. A sandwich holography technique was developed to avoid unwanted rigid body motions of samples due to hole drilling when relieving stresses. Stress values were obtained by measuring fringe displacement between two exposures of a sandwich hologram, due to hole drilling. Results on the change in residual stress values with TSN are discussed. The residual stress values determined by XRD and sandwich holography were found to be comparable, and stress values obtained by hole drilling/strain gauge measurement were higher than these values. The reasons are discussed.     

3D Finite Element Numerical Simulation of Residual Stresses on Electron Beam Welded BT20 Plates

A three-dimensional finite-element model (FEM) used for calculating electron beam (EB) welding temperature and stresses fields of thin plates of BT20 titanium has been developed in which the nonlinear thermophysical and thermo-mechanical properties of the material has been considered. The welding temperature field, the distributions of residual stresses in as-welded (AW) and electron beam local post-weld heat treatment (EBLPWHT) conditions have been successfully simulated. The results show that: (1) In the weld center, the maximum magnitude of residual tensile stresses of BT20 thin plates of Ti alloy is equal to 60%- 70% of its yield strength σs. (2) The residual tensile stresses in weld center can be even decreased after EBLPWHT and the longitudinal tensile stresses are decreased about 50% compared to joints in AW conditions. (3) The numerical calculating results of residual stresses by using FEM are basically in agreement with the experimental results. Combined with numerical calculating results, the     

铁路车辆车轮高频振动2D轴对称模型计算分析

文中采用2D轴对称模型对车轮进行模态分析,以此为基础用模态迭加法计算车轮的动态响应。计算车轮动柔度代表车轮振动响应。在计算车轮动态响应时,不仅考虑了车轮的弹性模态,也考虑了车轮的刚体模态。论文深入分析了振动响应计算采用轮对和车轮模态的不同特点,在此基础上提出了改进方法。计算结果表明:包含车轴的模态和车轮的刚体模态对2000 Hz以下频段振动响应有影响。利用单个车轮和轮对的混合模态得到车轮振动响应与轮对计算结果在50-5000 Hz频率范围良好一致。     

聚氨酯硬泡连续屏障近场隔振效果分析

传统的连续屏障在缓解环境振动方面已取得比较理想的效果,但其整体稳定性差,对低频的隔振效果不佳。基于此背景,提出了锚杆约束的聚氨酯硬泡连续屏障。通过有限元数值分析方法,对聚氨酯硬泡连续屏障和混凝土连续屏障分别在地面简谐激励和桩振源简谐激励作用下的近场隔振性能进行研究。研究表明:地面振源激励下,混凝土连续墙和聚氨酯硬泡连续屏障对中高频振动有较好的隔振效果,混凝土连续墙对低频(10 Hz)振动隔振效果不佳,聚氨酯硬泡连续屏障对5 Hz~10 Hz的低频振动有很好的隔振效果;桩振源激励下,两种屏障的隔振效果比地面振源激励时效果更好,两种屏障对中高频振动及5 Hz~10 Hz的低频振动有较好的隔振效果。     

疲劳振动对瓦楞纸板承载能力与缓冲性能的影响

对瓦楞纸板进行疲劳振动试验,测定分析振动次数、加速度对瓦楞纸板承载能力、缓冲性能的影响,并与未经振动材料进行比较.结果表明,随着振动次数、振动加速度的增加,瓦楞纸板剩余屈服应力减小,缓冲系数增大,其中在小应力阶段缓冲系数变化不大,在大应力阶段,缓冲系数显著增大.进行频率20Hz、加速度为2.0g、80000次振动试验后,瓦楞纸板承载能力下降了38.88%,静态应力0.012MPa下的缓冲系数增大了46.37%.缓冲包装设计时,应考虑疲劳效应对瓦楞纸板衬垫缓冲性能的影响,以确保实现预期缓冲包装的要求.     

砖块打包机摩擦焊接臂的振动特性分析

目的 减小共振疲劳对摩擦焊接机构的影响,提高砖块打包机的可靠性、性能及使用寿命。方法 建立摩擦焊接机构模型,分析不同振动频率下的摩擦振动臂位移振幅与应力振幅。以理想焊接温度为基础,焊接时间为参数,确定振动频率与马达转速。结果 在所测试的频率范围内,随着振动频率不断增加,Z方向位移振幅较大于X、Y方向,Y方向应力振幅较大于X、Z方向,3个方向位移振幅与应力振幅均呈上升趋势。振动频率为440 Hz时,焊接时间至少需要2.0 s;振动频率为450 Hz和460 Hz时,焊接时间至少需要1.9 s。摩擦振动臂底端温度分布基本一致且均达到理想焊接温度,最终选取振动频率为450 Hz,马达转速设定为27000r/min。结论 最终确定的转速不仅需要满足共振疲劳影响最小化,还需结合砖块打包机实际焊接温度及效率因素,以此提高砖块打包机的可靠性与使用寿命。     

Residual stress in a thick section high strength T-butt weld

Residual stresses in a structure are generated as a result of the various fabrication and welding processes used to make the component. Being able to quantify these residual stresses is a key step in determining the continuing integrity of a structure in service. In this work, the residual stresses around a high strength, quenched and tempered steel T-butt web to curved plate weld have been measured using neutron strain scanning. The results show that the residual stresses near the weld were dominated by the welding residual stresses, while the stresses further from the weld were dominated by the bending residual stresses. The results suggest that the combination of welding-induced residual stress and significant pre-welding residual stress, as in the case of a thick bent section of plate can significantly alter the residual stress profile from that in a flat plate.     

Synchrotron diffraction investigation of the distribution and influence of residual stresses in fatigue

This paper presents some results obtained from synchrotron diffraction investigations into two somewhat related areas of interest to the fatigue community. Firstly, the influence of fatigue cycling on the distribution and magnitude of residual strains and stresses and, secondly, the residual strains and stresses engendered around a growing fatigue crack. Its main premise is that modern tools such as automated synchrotron strain scanning offer the potential for more complete insight into the distribution of residual strains and stresses and their influence on fatigue performance. The first part of the work was accomplished using friction‐stir welded (FSW) and metal‐inert gas (MIG) welded specimens. The particular interest in these specimens was obtaining detailed knowledge regarding as‐welded variation in residual stresses between specimens, the location of peak values relative to local microstructure and stress concentrations, and of their modification during fatigue cycling. Such information may indicate a route forward to the selection of welding process parameters for optimised fatigue performance. The second part of the work considered an established fatigue crack in a compact tension (CT) specimen and examined the ability of synchrotron diffraction to characterize the stresses associated with the plastic enclave around a fatigue crack. This work is of interest in the context of better knowledge of crack‐tip shielding by plasticity‐induced closure and its incorporation into life prediction methodologies.     

Numerical and experimental validation of residual stresses of laser‐welded joints and their influence on the fatigue behaviour

In this work laser‐welded tube‐tube specimens made of aluminium alloys AlMg3.5Mn and AlSi1MgMn T6 were experimentally tested under constant and variable amplitude loading, under pure axial and pure torsion loading. In order to evaluate the influence on fatigue behaviour of the residual stresses, because of the welding process, some specimens were subjected to postweld heat treatment and then were tested. The numerical analyses, using finite element (FE), were carried out to obtain a reliable estimation of the residual stress in the specimen. The numerical results were in a good agreement with experimental ones obtained by means of hole‐drilling method. Finally, the residual stress distribution was superimposed to stress distribution because of fatigue loads obtained by FE analyses applying local concept, to calculate the stresses in the crack initiation zone and to understand the different types of failure that occurred in as‐welded and relieved specimens.     

振动CO2气体保护焊缝残余应力和接头显微组织分析

采用振动CO2气体保护焊对轻型汽车驱动桥壳进行了焊接。对被焊接工件在常规CO2气体保护焊、常规CO2气体保护焊后振动时效处理及不同激振频率下振动CO2气体保护焊三种工艺进行了对比,并就不同条件下的焊缝残余应力、焊接接头显微组织作了分析。结果表明,采用适当振动参数, 在较大振幅时,振动CO2气保焊接能有效减小焊接变形,降低焊接残余应力,最大主动应力降低幅度达到41.74%。熔合区和过度区变窄,焊缝和热影响区晶粒明显细化,由柱状晶转变为等轴晶,魏氏组织减少甚至消失。