Preface: Challenges and opportunities for enhancing food security in Kenya

Achieving sustainable food security in Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the main challenges facing African governments and the international community. The 2007?C2008 food crisis and ongoing chronic hunger problems clearly demonstrate that millions of people on the continent, including in relatively stable countries such as Kenya, are dangerously vulnerable to economic, political and climatic shocks that threaten food availability and accessibility. At the heart of the strategies to build resilience and tackle food insecurity is the need for effective institutional and policy frameworks that can support local innovations while taking into account the biophysical, social and economic constraints within which rural livelihoods operate. The papers included in this Special Issue of Food Security support the view that for food security initiatives in Kenya to be effective, they must embrace solutions that are equitable, generalizable and ecologically sound to ensure sustainability. Ultimately, to improve innovation and technology adoption, a systems approach that allows women and men, wealthy and poor farmers to engage with scientific and political elites in the design and implementation of food-related research and development initiatives must be embraced. There is also the need to develop tools and approaches that can assist smallholder farmers, researchers, policy makers and other stakeholders to share a better understanding of the multiple factors driving food insecurity and hindering the implementation of effective policies and institutions.     

Food and nutrition security discursive frames in the context of the Spanish economic crisis

The recent economic crisis in Spain has provoked a number of food and nutrition security (FNS) impacts that have fuelled a fragmented landscape of food-related debates, although these have not taken the form of a coherent and all-embracing public discussion on national food security. This paper is an inductive analysis of such debates, mostly based on media coverage, in an attempt to disentangle the different discourse frames on FNS in Spain, and the role played by the economic crisis in the shaping and underpinning of such frames. For this purpose a frame matrix was constructed, paying particular attention to the stakeholders’ governance claims in order to confront frame-specific problems. Results show how stakeholders have used elements of the crisis to underpin or reinterpret their core arguments. In addition, governance claims have concentrated on the malfunctioning of the food chain, mostly due to unequal bargaining power, and the way this could be putting at risk crucial components of the food system and future FNS. Also, the short-termism of most stakeholders’ approaches obscures the long run threats to the Spanish food system.     

Gluten‐Free Snacks Using Plantain–Chickpea and Maize Blend: Chemical Composition,Starch Digestibility,and Predicted Glycemic Index

An increase in celiac consumers has caused an increasing interest to develop good quality gluten‐free food products with high nutritional value. Snack foods are consumed worldwide and have become a normal part of the eating habits of the celiac population making them a target to improve their nutritive value. Extrusion and deep‐frying of unripe plantain, chickpea, and maize flours blends produced gluten‐free snacks with high dietary fiber contents (13.7–18.2 g/100 g) and low predicted glycemic index (28 to 35). The gluten‐free snacks presented lower fat content (12.7 to 13.6 g/100 g) than those reported in similar commercial snacks. The snack with the highest unripe plantain flour showed higher slowly digestible starch (11.6 and 13.4 g/100 g) than its counterpart with the highest chickpea flour level (6 g/100 g). The overall acceptability of the gluten‐free snacks was similar to that chili‐flavored commercial snack. It was possible to develop gluten‐free snacks with high dietary fiber content and low predicted glycemic index with the blend of the 3 flours, and these gluten‐free snacks may also be useful as an alternative to reduce excess weight and obesity problems in the general population and celiac community.     

Aid or abyss? Food assistance programs (FAPs), food security and livelihoods in Humla,Nepal

Over two thirds of the world’s poorest and most food-insecure people live in developing countries. Since Food Assistance Programs (FAPs) are the most commonly applied food security interventions in these countries, their effective management remains a shared concern in development policies. In addition to addressing short-term relief needs, FAPs have also been funding integrated rural development projects. This paper assesses how FAPs are operationalized in terms of food aid distribution among people in different social and economic strata in Nepal. In addition, it also explores micro-level institutional, technical and geographical factors that influence the implementation of FAPs based community projects in order to analyze their potential efficiency in stimulating local development. Results suggest that FAPs do bring certain benefits, for instance helping to reduce household food deficits as well as acting as a safety net for poorer households, by reducing their reliance on debt as a means of securing food. However, they also suggest that the provision of food by FAPs is not equitable in view of intra-community socio-economic variations and food security needs. Households belonging to the high caste and thus enjoying better food security conditions were found to exploit their political and social networks in order to acquire a disproportionately higher amount of food assistance. Furthermore, the community projects also failed to attract effective local participation which, in turn, led them to becoming incompatible with the needs, priorities and capacities of local communities. From the perspective of ‘targeting’, we conclude that the continuation of FAPs in their existing modalities mostly maintain the status quo, and can even have the effect of exacerbating local inequalities.     

Pulse-based snacks as functional foods: Processing challenges and biological potential

Despite their high nutritional value and potential health benefits, pulse intake has not increased in the last three decades. Several strategies have been implemented to increase pulse consumption, such as their incorporation in bakery products, breakfast cereals, and snacks. The inclusion of pulses in these products could be an alternative to satisfy the consumers’ demand for healthy foods. However, pulse-based snacks face important challenges, including reducing antinutritional factors, achieving consumer acceptance, and consolidating the pulse-based snacks as functional foods. This review summarizes and discusses methods for producing snacks where cereals or tubers were replaced with at least 50% pulses. Also, it briefly assesses their effect on nutritional composition, antinutritional factors, sensory acceptance, and different health benefits evaluations. Extruded snacks exhibited high protein and dietary fiber and low fat content, contrary to the high fat content of deep fat–fried snacks. Meanwhile, baked snacks presented moderate concentrations of protein, dietary fiber, and lipids. Pulses must be pretreated using process combinations such as soaking, dehulling, cooking, fermentation, germination, and extrusion to reduce the antinutritional factors. Pulse-based snacks show good sensory acceptance. However, sensory evaluation should be more rigorous using additional untrained judges. Several studies have evaluated the health benefits of pulse-based snacks. More research is needed to validate scientifically the health benefits associated with their consumption. Pulse-based snacks could be an alternative to improve the nutritional composition of commercially available snacks. The use of pulses as ingredients of healthier snacks represents an important alternative for the food industry due to their low cost, sensory characteristics, high nutritional profile, and environmental benefits.     

ScalA-FS: expert-based ex-ante assessments of local requirements and success potential of upgrading strategies for improving food security in rural Tanzania

Enhancing food security is the main goal of subsistence farmers, who are vulnerable to food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa. Participatory research across food value chains (FVC) can help stabilize and enhance food security by developing upgrading strategies (UPS). However, prior to successful widespread adoption and geographical upscaling, such practices need in-depth understanding of their suitability in target areas and their particular local requirements. Ex-ante assessments of selected UPS were carried out by German and Tanzanian agricultural scientists using the “ScalA-FS” tool. The participating experts included those responsible for implementation. The tool aims to systematically evaluate, at the community level, UPS that have been successfully implemented elsewhere, evaluate their potential for dissemination, and identify entry points for adjustments during implementation. Assessment indicators were developed through a participatory process. UPS relate to a) natural resource management and crop production; b) food processing and bioenergy; c) income generation and market participation; and d) food consumption. Here we present the ScalA-FS assessment results on UPS suitability as well as on its implementation requirements. We focused on the local context needed to enable a productive collaboration between smallholder farmers and implementing research and/or development organizations. Implementation requirements for the selected UPS were assessed as generally low to medium, and projected suitability in most cases was high. Local knowledge and education (human capital) along with visible success after a short time were important criteria of success of UPS. Here, careful consideration of the challenges before and after implementation of UPS is suggested. ScalA-FS should be applied early in the implementation process of UPS in order to support adaptations and successful upscaling at other locations.     

Food patterns during an economic crisis among pregnant women in Purworejo District, Central Java, Indonesia

A cross-sectional study was conducted between 1996 and 1998. Six 24-hour recalls were performed during the second trimester of pregnancy among 450 women in Purworejo District, Central Java, Indonesia. The objectives of the study were to assess the food intake and food pattern among pregnant women before and during the economic crisis. Before the crisis, rich women had the highest intakes of animal foods, fats and oils, and sugar. Food intake among the urban poor and the rural landless poor subgroups was influenced by the emerging economic crisis. Although the price of rice increased, the intake of rice also increased among all subgroups. Rural poor women with access to rice fields increased their intake of rice and decreased their intake of nonrice staple foods (p < .05). There were significant decreases in the consumption of chicken by rich women and rural poor women with access to rice fields (p < .05). Rice was a strongly inferior good and remained an important supplier of energy, protein, and carbohydrate. Nuts and pulses were important suppliers of calcium and iron, and vegetables were an important supplier of vitamin A. Rich women increased their intake of nuts and pulses, vegetables, fats and oils, and sugar when their intake of rice increased (p < .05). The food patterns were based on rice, nuts and pulses, and vegetables, i.e., plant food. All but the rich women decreased their intake of nutritious foods such as meat, chicken, and fruits. The intake of nuts and pulses and of vegetables increased, whereas the intake of cooking oil and sugar remained constant.     

Industry challenge to best practice risk communication

Effective food safety and food defense risk communication helps to inform consumers without causing panic and alarm. The Risk Communication Team of the Natl. Center for Food Protection and Defense has developed a list of 11 best practices recommended for effective risk communication. These practices, designed for a food defense crisis, are currently applied to food safety issues, since fortunately a food defense crisis has yet to occur. IFT examined the utility of these best practices and the limitations on their use during food safety and food defense crises by academics, trade associations, and the government. It was hypothesized that legal and business considerations as well as the nature of the event would determine the implementation of the best practices. Through the use of focus group meetings, it was discovered that there was a low level of awareness of the best practices. However, stakeholders practiced some aspects of the recommended practices. Participants felt some of the practices were related and could be consolidated. They also agreed that a food defense event will increase the urgency of the communication and include players not typically involved in food safety issues. The challenges reported by the stakeholders varied, but legal liability, as well as the impact their communications could have on an industry, were often cited. From the government perspective, their need to act within their authorities drove some of their actions with respect to communication. Determining the differences in communication limitations during food safety against food defense events can provide key information to further developing and refining risk communications and specific messages targeted for a food defense incident. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Effective food safety and food defense risk communication helps to inform consumers without causing panic and alarm. Determining the differences in communication limitations during food safety against food defense events can provide key information to further developing and refining risk communications and specific messages targeted for a food defense incident.     

Impact of a homestead gardening program on household food security and empowerment of women in Bangladesh

This paper assesses the additional benefits of a homestead gardening program designed to control vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh. In February and March 2002, data were collected on the food security and social status of women from 2,160 households of active and former participants in the gardening program and from control groups in order to assess the impact and sustainability of the program. The proportions of active and former-participant households that gardened year-round were fivefold and threefold, respectively, higher than that of the control group (78% and 50% vs. 15%). In a three-month period, the households of active participants produced a median of 135 kg and consumed a median of 85 kg of vegetables, while the control households produced a median of 46 kg and consumed a median of 38 kg (p <.001). About 64% of the active-participant households generated a median garden income of 347 taka (US$1 = 51 taka), which was spent mainly on food, and 25% of the control households generated 200 taka in the same period (p < .001). The garden production and income levels of formerly participating households three years after withdrawal of program support were much higher than those of the control households, illustrating the sustainability of the program and its ability to increase household food security. Significantly more women in active- and former-participant households than in control households perceived that they had increased their economic contribution to their households since the time the program was launched in their subdistricts (> 85% vs. 52%). Similar results were found for the level of influence gained by women on household decision-making. These results highlight the multiple benefits that homestead gardening programs can bring and demonstrate that these benefits should be considered when selecting nutritional and development approaches targeting poor households.     

Effect of co-eating on unfamiliar food intake among Japanese young adults

The present study explored whether partner presence (pair vs. individual) affects unfamiliar food intake. In the experiment, participants were asked to taste pieces of 13 kinds of snacks, including three unfamiliar and ten neutral snacks, and were informed that they did not have to eat a snack if they did not want to. The total amounts and ratios of all kinds of snacks consumed for unfamiliar and neutral snacks were compared between participants in the pair condition and those in the individual condition. Results demonstrated that the ratio of participants who consumed all three kinds of unfamiliar snacks was higher in the pair condition than in the individual condition. Furthermore, the results of communication analyses showed that participants in the pair condition tried unfamiliar snacks even after the peer expressed a negative evaluation of a snack. These results suggest that social motivation such as risk-taking and conformity affect unfamiliar food intake in co-eating situations.     

Understanding the local reality of the adoption of sustainable practices and farmer livelihoods: the case of pummelo farming in Chaiyaphum, Northeast Thailand

In the light of the serious economic crisis of 1997 and Agenda 21, as proposed in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, the Thai government has increased commitments to sustainable agricultural development. This paper examines how local Thai farmers are interacting with the policy imperatives of sustainable agriculture, focusing on the adoption of sustainable practices and farmer livelihoods. Two pummelo producing communities in Chaiyaphum province, Northeast Thailand were chosen as examples and compared: one, located in the highlands, focused on sales for local and domestic markets and the other, located in the lowlands, included sales for export. Both were involved in the implementation of Q-GAP, a public policy for good agricultural practices. The pummelo producers discursively sought the best combination of conventional and sustainable farming practices by balancing the benefits and risks concerning labour requirements, commercial results, financial risks associated with credit loans and investment and ecological sustainability.     

Assessment of Important Sensory Attributes of Millet Based Snacks and Biscuits

There is an increasing push by consumers for new food products that can provide health benefits. To develop these products, sometimes it is necessary to look to alternative crops, 1 of which is millet. For millet to be successfully adopted by consumers, it is necessary to identify and develop product types that are acceptable to North Americans. Biscuits and extruded snacks were produced using varying amounts of refined proso millet flour (0%, 25%, 75%, and 100%). Sensory analysis was conducted on 8 products (4 types of biscuits and 4 types of extruded snack) in 2 separate tests (1 for biscuits and 1 for snacks). Preferred Attribute Elicitation (PAE), a relatively new sensory method, was used to determine attributes affecting liking of the products. Results indicated that as the amount of millet in the biscuits and extruded snacks increased, the liking of the flavor, texture and overall liking decreased. Millet contributed to a bitter taste and bitter aftertaste, and resulted in gritty and dry food products. Further work is required to refine the products tested as well as to identify further products that can be added to the diet in order to take advantage of the health benefits that millet provides.     

The promise of a community-based approach to managing severe malnutrition: A case study from Ethiopia

BACKGROUND: Community-based therapeutic care (CTC) is a new strategy in the arsenal of techniques to manage complex nutritional emergencies in rural communities. The CTC approach uses a newly developed ready-to-use therapeutic food, Plumpynut, to rehabilitate severely malnourished children in their home communities. Emerging literature has suggested the CTC strategy yielded results that were superior to those of programs limited to therapeutic feeding centers, as measured by rates of coverage and numbers of children rehabilitated. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of the CTC strategy in combination with conventional treatments for acute malnutrition. The expectation was that this program would support the growing consensus on the effectiveness of CTC strategies. METHODS: Data from monitoring the initial phase of program implementation were reviewed to ascertain program impact. The number of children participating and the outcome of their participation were assessed. RESULTS: Families became key participants in the rehabilitation of their children, and communities became strengthened through the mobilization of local networks and the improved knowledge base of local health workers. Recovery rates were comparable with international standards, and coverage far exceeded that of traditional center-based care. CONCLUSIONS: CTC is an important tool to effectively address nutritional emergencies and may be a valuable entry point for long-term development, since it fosters capacity building and improvement in local communities. CTC programs may eventually be viewed as the entry point for more sustained development-oriented interventions, thus helping make the transition from relief to development.     

河北省某农村地区儿童零食食品风险分析

目的我国广大农村地区儿童零食安全状况堪忧,直接关系儿童的健康和生命安全。食品安全风险预测与风险分析作为被国际社会普遍遵循和认可的食品安全管理机制,应成为我国农村零食安全专项整治行动之外制度性、常态化的治理方式。方法本研究以河北省某农村地区为例,通过对河北省食品药品监督管理局发布的2014—2015年食品监督抽检结果的分析,以及对该地区350名5~13岁学龄期儿童进行问卷调查,使用食品安全风险预测的手段识别当地零食/危害组合,并根据消费水平和危害程度交叉形成了九大区域。结果综合危害高低和消费主次的情况,九大区域可被划分为四大风险阵营,其中糖果、火腿肠、蛋糕、方便面等零食属于第一风险阵营,应被重点监管和交流,其他零食/危害组合的风险可随着风险强度减弱而逐渐减弱监管力度,但是对于历史上曾多次发生食品安全问题的组合,例如饼干、调味面食类等,也应作为重点监管对象。结论食品安全风险预测可帮助确定风险的优先次序,发现重点监管对象,为开展有效的风险管理和风险交流奠定基础。本研究为实施地区性食品安全风险预测和风险分析提供思路,以便监管部门开展高效的食品安全风险管理工作。     

Antioxidant potential and quality characteristics of Mediterranean fruit‐based extruded snacks

‘Mediterranean snacks’ (dried fruits and nuts as principal ingredients), a little known food product with a high nutritional value, might be considered a good alternative for consumers looking for healthy snacks. The aim of this research was to determine the physicochemical properties and nutritional value of this type of food stuff (traditionally called ‘fruit cakes’ in Mediterranean countries) and to evaluate their phenolic content and antioxidant activity. All the fruit‐based extruded snacks studied are shelf‐stable at room temperature (because of their pH and water activity values). The final product has a low moisture (<32%) and high sugar content (>30%), the only sugars being those naturally present in the food. All the fruit‐based extruded snacks had a dietary fibre content higher than 10% (high‐fibre foods). Date extruded snack and apricot extruded snack showed the highest total phenolic and flavonoid content and also the highest antioxidant activity as determined by the DPPH and FRAP methods.     

Nutri-Score,multiple traffic light and incomplete nutrition labelling on food packages: Effects on consumers’ accuracy in identifying healthier snack options

Front-of-package (FOP) nutrition labels are designed to help consumers evaluate the healthiness of foods and to promote healthier food choices. In this study, an online experiment with Swiss consumers (N = 1313) was conducted to compare the effects of different nutrition label formats on consumers’ evaluations of snack food healthiness. Participants were asked to select the healthier option in 105 pairwise comparisons of 15 salty snacks. The participants were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: the FOP presented with (1) the nutrition facts table, (2) the multiple traffic light (MTL), (3) the Nutri-Score, (4) the Nutri-Score on half of the products, or (5) no nutrition information (control). The consumers’ evaluations of the snacks’ healthiness were fairly accurate, even without being given nutrition information on the packaging. The Nutri-Score led to the greatest accuracy in identifying the healthier of two snacks (when using the British FSA/Ofcom nutrient profiling score to determine product healthiness); however, this had only a minimal effect on the evaluation when only some of the products were labelled. Both FOP labels were superior to the FOP with and without the nutrition facts. This indicates that for maximum effectiveness, the labelling of all available products is needed. The perceived usefulness and public support of mandatory implementation were higher for the MTL than for the Nutri-Score label; however, for the latter, perceived usefulness and public acceptance were higher among the participants who became familiar with the label during the experiment than among those who did not.     

消费者偏好的变化对欧盟农业和食品政策的影响:一个宏观概览

由于经济福利的改善、农业生产率的提高、消费者健康意识的增强和食品安全危机等多重影响,欧盟消费者对食品的偏好特征发生了改变,推动了欧盟农业和食品政策关注点从传统的供给和收入问题向食品质量和安全问题转变。本文在论述了消费者偏好变化和欧盟农业与食品政策变革的基础上,分析讨论了消费者对欧盟政策和标准的影响。     

Impact of fortification of flours with iron to reduce the prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency among schoolchildren in Caracas, Venezuela: a follow-up

In Venezuela, a severe economic crisis starting in 1983 provoked a progressive reduction in the quantity and quality of food consumed by people from the low socioeconomic strata of the population. This situation resulted in a continuous increase in the prevalence of iron deficiency in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1993, an iron-fortification program was started, in which precooked corn and white wheat flours were enriched with iron, vitamin A, thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin. White wheat flour was enriched with the same nutrients, except for vitamin A. In 1996 we published the results of the impact of fortification of precooked corn and white wheat flours on the prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency in the population. A survey carried out in Caracas in 307 children aged 7, 11, and 15 years showed that the prevalence of iron deficiency measured by serum ferritin concentration dropped from 37% in 1992 to 16% in 1994, only one year after the iron-fortification program began. The prevalence of anemia, as measured by the hemoglobin concentration, diminished from 19% to 10% during the same period. This article reports the results of three other surveys carried out in 1997, 1998, and 1999 on children of the same age and socioeconomic groups that were evaluated in 1990, 1992, and 1994. There were no significant differences in anemia or iron deficiency among the last three surveys. The prevalence results from the last seven years seem to indicate that, after a dramatic reduction in 1994, iron deficiency tended to stabilize, while the prevalence of anemia increased to the same level found in 1992, before the fortification program started.     

The Correlation between Knowledge and Attitude on Food Colorant Uses of PKK Mothers in Penggaron Lor Village

The problem in Penggaron Lor Village are the lack of knowledge and skills, especially mothers about healthy snacks and food colorant, so it requires to observed the the correlation between knowledge and attitude on food colorant uses. This study was an observational analytic study with cross sectional design. Among PKK (a community organization whose members mothers household), 57.9% and 50% (n=38) had a good level of food colorant knowledge and attitude, respectively. The improper food colorant uses are not always a result of a low level of knowledge on food colorant. It is very necessary to carry out training on food colorant uses among PKK mothers to increase the practices of food cooking.     

Eat smart! Workplace Cafeteria Program evaluation of the nutrition component.

PURPOSE: The nutrition component of the Eat Smart! Workplace Cafeteria Program (ESWCP) in a hospital was evaluated. We assessed staff's frequency of visits to and purchases in the hospital cafeteria, attitudes about the program, short-term eating behaviour change, and suggestions to improve the ESWCP. METHODS: Questionnaires were sent to hospital staff members who were not on leave (n=504). Dillman's Tailored Design Method was used to design and implement the survey. Four mail-outs were used and yielded a 51% response rate. RESULTS: Eighty-seven percent of respondents visited the hospital cafeteria at least once a week in an average seven-day week, and 69% purchased one to five meals or snacks there each week. Eighty-six percent of respondents said that they were aware of the hospital's program. Notices on cafeteria tables were the primary method of learning about the program (67%). Reported program benefits included increased knowledge about healthy eating, convenience of having healthy foods in the cafeteria, and increased energy. CONCLUSION: Many respondents were aware of the program, provided positive comments about it, and reported positive changes in eating habits. However, future observational research is warranted to note foods served and sold before and after program implementation, as well as to examine whether results can be generalized to other settings.