Isothermal aging effects on the microstructure and solder bump shear strength of eutectic Sn37Pb and Sn3.5Ag solders

The reliability of the eutectic Sn37Pb (63%Sn37%Pb) and Sn3.5Ag (96.5%Sn3.5%Ag) solder bumps with an under bump metallization (UBM) consisting of an electroless Ni(P) plus a thin layer of Au was evaluated following isothermal aging at 150 °C. All the solder bumps remained intact after 1500 h aging at 150 °C. Solder bump microstructure evolution and interface structure change during isothermal aging were observed and correlated with the solder bump shear strength and failure modes. Cohesive solder failure was the only failure mode for the eutectic Sn37Pb solder bump, while partial cohesive solder failure and partial Ni(P) UBM/Al metallization interfacial delamination was the main failure mode for eutectic Sn3.5Ag solder bump.     

A study in flip-chip UBM/bump reliability with effects of SnPb solder composition

This paper aims to investigate the electromigration phenomenon of under-bump-metallization (UBM) and solder bumps of a flip-chip package under high temperature operation life test (HTOL). UBM is a thin film Al/Ni(V)/Cu metal stack of 1.5 μm; while bump material consists of Sn/37Pb, Sn/90Pb, and Sn/95Pb solder. Current densities of 2500 and 5000 A/cm² and ambient temperatures of 150–160 °C are applied to study their impact on electromigration. It is observed that bump temperature has more significant influence than current density does to bump failures. Owing to its higher melting point characteristics and less content of Sn phase, Sn/95Pb solder bumps are observed to have 13-fold improvement in Mean-Time-To-Failure (MTTF) than that of eutectic Sn/37Pb. Individual bump resistance history is calculated to evaluate UBM/bump degradation. The measured resistance increase is from bumps with electrical current flowing upward into UBM/bump interface (cathode), while bumps having opposite current polarity cause only minor resistance change. The identified failure sites and modes from aforementioned high resistance bumps reveal structural damages at the region of UBM and UBM/bump interface in forms of solder cracking or delamination. Effects of current polarity and crowding are key factors to observed electromigration behavior of flip-chip packages.     

Comparison of electroplated eutectic Bi/Sn and Pb/Sn solder bumpson various UBM systems

The effect of a reflow process and under bump metallurgy (UBM) systems on the growth of intermetallic compounds (IMC) of the 57Bi/43Sn and 37Pb/63Sn solder bump/UBM interfaces was investigated. The selected UBM systems were sputtered Al/Ti/Cu, sputtered Al/NiV/Cu, Al/electroless Ni/immersion Au, and Al/Ti/electroless Cu. An alloy electroplating method was used for the solder bumping process. The microstructure and composition of intermetallic compound (IMC) phases and their morphologies were examined using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The Cu₆Sn₅ η'-phase IMC appeared on all Cu containing UBM cases with Pb/Sn and Bi/Sn solders and the Cu ₃Sn ϵ-phase was detected only with Pb/Sn solder bumps. The Ni₃Sn₄ IMC was found to be the main IMC phase between Ni and solder. The Ni₃Sn secondary IMC was also detected on the electroless Ni UBM with PbSn solder after ten times reflow. Through the bump shear test, Al/NiV/Cu, Al/elNi/Au, and Al/Ti/elCu UBMs showed good stability with Bi/Sn and Pb/Sn solder in terms of metallurgical aspects     

Correlation between interfacial reactions and mechanical strengths of Sn(Cu)/Ni(P) solder bumps

The correlation between interfacial reactions and mechanical strengths of Sn(Cu)/Ni(P) solder bumps has been studied. Upon solid-state aging, a diffusion-controlled process was observed for the interfacial Ni-Sn compound formation of the Sn/Ni(P) reaction couple and the activation energy is calculated to be 42 KJ/mol. For the Sn0.7Cu/Ni(P), in the initial aging, a needle-shaped Ni-Sn compound layer formed on Ni(P). Then, it was gradually covered by a layer of the Cu-Sn compound in the later aging process. Hence, a mixture layer of Ni-Sn and Cu-Sn compounds formed at the interface. For the Sn3.0Cu/Ni(P), a thick Cu-Sn compound layer quickly formed on Ni(P), which retarded the Ni-Sn compound formation and resulted in a distinct Cu-Sn compound/Ni(P) interface. The shear test results show that the mixture interface of Sn0.7Cu bumps have fair shear strengths against the aging process. In contrast, the distinct Cu-Sn/Ni(P) interface of Sn3.0Cu solder bumps is relatively weak and exhibits poor resistance against the aging process. Upon the reflowing process, the gap formation at the Ni(P)/Cu interface caused a fast degradation in the interfacial strength for Sn solder bumps. For Sn0.7Cu and Sn3.0Cu solder bumps, Ni₃P formation was greatly retarded by the self-formed Cu-Sn compound layer. Therefore, Sn(Cu) solder bumps show better shear strengths over the Sn solder bump.     

Prediction of Solder Bump Formation in Solder Jet Packaging Process

Precise solder bump shape prediction is crucial for the application of the solder jet bumping process to microelectronic component packaging. In the present study, numerical simulation of both the dynamics and phase change responses during a metal droplet impingement is conducted by introducing a nonconstant interfacial heat transfer coefficient, which varies with time and position. Comparison between the numerical and experimental results for a large metal droplet demonstrates the validity of the numerical method. The results of many simulation cases are presented corresponding to typical solder jet bumping conditions. Variations in the impact velocity, initial droplet size, and droplet temperature and substrate temperature are investigated to understand their impact on the formation of solder bumps.     

Eutectic Sn-Ag solder bump process for ULSI flip chip technology

A novel eutectic Pb-free solder bump process, which provides several advantages over conventional solder bump process schemes, has been developed. A thick plating mask can be fabricated for steep wall bumps using a nega-type resist with a thickness of more than 50 μm by single-step spin coating. This improves productivity for mass production. The two-step electroplating is performed using two separate plating reactors for Ag and Sn. The Sn layer is electroplated on the Ag layer. Eutectic Sn-Ag alloy bumps can be easily obtained by annealing the Ag/Sn metal stack. This electroplating process does not need strict control of the Ag to Sn content ratio in alloy plating solutions. The uniformity of the reflowed bump height within a 6-in wafer was less than 10%. The Ag composition range within a 6-in wafer was less than ±0.3 wt.% Ag at the eutectic Sn-Ag alloy, analyzed by ICP spectrometry. SEM observations of the Cu/barrier layer/Sn-Ag solder interface and shear strength measurements of the solder bumps were performed after 5 times reflow at 260°C in N₂ ambient. For the Ti(100 nm)/Ni(300 nm)/Pd(50 nm) barrier layer, the shear strength decreased to 70% due to the formation of Sn-Cu intermetallic compounds. Thicker Ti in the barrier metal stack improved the shear strength. The thermal stability of the Cu/barrier layer/Sn-Ag solder metal stack was examined using Auger electron spectrometry analysis. After annealing at 150°C for 1000 h in N₂ ambient, Sn did not diffuse into the Cu layer for Ti(500 nm)/Ni(300 nm)/Pd(50 nm) and Nb(360 nm)/Ti(100 nm)/Ni(300 nm)/Pd(50 nm) barrier metal stacks. These results suggest that the Ti/Ni/Pd barrier metal stack available to Sn-Pb solder bumps and Au bumps on Al pads is viable for Sn-Ag solder bumps on Cu pads in upcoming ULSIs     

Experimental characterization and mechanical behavior analysis of intermetallic compounds of Sn–3.5Ag lead-free solder bump with Ti/Cu/Ni UBM on copper chip

Due to today’s trend towards ‘green’ products, the environmentally conscious manufacturers are moving toward lead-free schemes for electronic devices and components. Nowadays the bumping process has become a branch of the infrastructure of flip chip bonding technology. However, the formation of excessively brittle intermetallic compound (IMC) between under bump metallurgy (UBM)/solder bump interface influences the strength of solder bumps within flip chips, and may create a package reliability issue. Based on the above reason, this study investigated the mechanical behavior of lead-free solder bumps affected by the solder/UBM IMC formation in the duration of isothermal aging. To attain the objective, the test vehicles of Sn–Ag (lead-free) and Sn–Pb solder bump systems designed in different solder volumes as well as UBM diameters were used to experimentally characterize their mechanical behavior. It is worth to mention that, to study the IMC growth mechanism and the mechanical behavior of a electroplated solder bump on a Ti/Cu/Ni UBM layer fabricated on a copper chip, the test vehicles are composed of, from bottom to top, a copper metal pad on silicon substrate, a Ti/Cu/Ni UBM layer and electroplated solder bumps. By way of metallurgical microscope and scanning-electron-microscope (SEM) observation, the interfacial microstructure of test vehicles was measured and analyzed. In addition, a bump shear test was utilized to determine the strength of solder bumps. Different shear displacement rates were selected to study the time-dependent failure mechanism of the solder bumps. The results indicated that after isothermal aging treatment at 150 °C for over 1000 h, the Sn–Ag solder revealed a better maintenance of bump strength than that of the Sn–Pb solder, and the Sn–Pb solder showed a higher IMC growth rate than that of Sn–Ag solder. In addition, it was concluded that the test vehicles of copper chip with the selected Ti/Cu/Ni UBMs showed good bump strength in both the Sn–Ag and Sn–Pb systems as the IMC grows. Furthermore, the study of shear displacement rate effect on the solder bump strength indicates that the analysis of bump strength versus thermal aging time should be identified as a qualitative analysis for solder bump strength determination rather than a quantitative one. In terms of the solder bump volume and the UBM size effects, neither the Sn–Ag nor the Sn–Pb solders showed any significant effect on the IMC growth rate.     

Pb-free Sn/3.5Ag electroplating bumping process and under bump metallization (UBM)

Pb-free solder is one of the biggest issues in today's electronic packaging industry. This paper introduces a newly developed Sn/3.5Ag alloy plating process for wafer level bumping. The effects of Under Bump Metallization (UBM) on the process, interfacial reaction, and mechanical strength have been investigated. Four different types of sputtering-based UBM layers-TiW/Cu/electroplated Cu, Cr/CrCu/Cu, NiV/Cu, and TiW/NiV-were fabricated with eutectic Pb/63Sn and Sn/3.5Ag solder. The result shows that the Sn/Ag solder gains Cu or Ni from UBM's and becomes Sn/Ag/Cu or Sn/Ag/Ni during reflow process. Sn/Ag solder has higher reactivity with Cu and Ni than Pb/63Sn. The Intermetallic Compound (IMC) spalling from the interface between UBM/solder has been observed on Cr/CrCu/Cu and TiW/NiV UBM's. However, the IMC spalling phenomena did not decrease the bump shear strength with a bump size of 110 /spl mu/m, whereas a size of 60 /spl mu/m brought a decrease in shear value and failure mode change.     

Under bump metallurgy study for Pb-free bumping

The demand for Pb-free and high-density interconnection technology is rapidly growing. The electroplating-bumping method is a good approach to meet finepitch requirements, especially for high-volume production, because to volume change of patterned-solder bumps during reflow is not so large compared with the stencil-printing method. This paper proposes a Sn/3.5 Ag Pb-free electroplating-bumping process for high-density Pb-free interconnects. It was found that a plated Sn/Ag bump becomes Sn/Ag/Cu by reflowing when Cu containing under bump metallurgy (UBM) is used. Another important issue for future flip-chip interconnects is to optimize the UBM system for high-density and Pb-free solder bumps. In this work, four UBM systems, sputtered TiW 0.2 μm/Cu 0.3 μm/electroplated Cu 5 μm, sputtered Cr 0.15 μm/Cr-Cu 0.3 μm/Cu 0.8 μm, sputtered NiV 0.2 μm/Cu 0.8 μm, and sputtered TiW 0.2 μm/NiV 0.8 μm, were investigated for interfacial reaction with electroplated Pb/63Sn and Sn/3.5Ag solder bumps. Both Cu-Sn and Ni-Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) growth were observed to spall-off from the UBM/solder interface when the solder-wettable layer is consumed during a liquid-state “reflow” process. This IMC-spalling mechanism differed depending on the barrier layer material.     

Effects of Cu contents in Pb-free solder alloys on interfacial reactions and bump reliability of Pb-free solder bumps on electroless Ni-P under-bump metallurgy

Using the screen-printed solder-bumping technique on the electroless plated Ni-P under-bump metallurgy (UBM) is potentially a good method because of cost effectiveness. As SnAgCu Pb-free solders become popular, demands for understanding of interfacial reactions between electroless Ni-P UBMs and Cu-containing Pb-free solder bumps are increasing. It was found that typical Ni-Sn reactions between the electroless Ni-P UBM and Sn-based solders were substantially changed by adding small amounts of Cu in Sn-based Pb-free solder alloys. In Cu-containing solder bumps, the (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ phase formed during initial reflow, followed by (Ni,Cu)₃Sn₄ phase formation during further reflow and aging. The Sn3.5Ag solder bumps showed a much faster electroless Ni-P UBM consumption rate than Cu-containing solder bumps: Sn4.0Ag0.5Cu and Sn0.7Cu. The initial formation of the (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ phase in SnAgCu and SnCu solders significantly reduced the consumption of the Ni-P UBM. The more Cu-containing solder showed slower consumption rate of the Ni-P UBM than the less Cu-containing solder below 300°C heat treatments. The growth rate of the (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ intermetallic compound (IMC) should be determined by substitution of Ni atoms into the Cu sublattice in the solid (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ IMC. The Cu contents in solder alloys only affected the total amount of the (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ IMC. More Cu-containing solders were recommended to reduce consumption of the Ni-based UBM. In addition, bump shear strength and failure analysis were performed using bump shear test.     

Plasma reflow bumping of Sn-3.5 Ag solder for flux-free flip chip package application

A new flux-free reflow process using Ar+10%H/sub 2/ plasma was investigated for application to solder bump flip chip packaging. The 100-/spl mu/m diameter Sn-3.5wt%Ag solder balls were bonded to 250-/spl mu/m pitch Cu/Ni under bump metallurgy (UBM) pattern by laser solder ball bonding method. Then, the Sn-Ag solder balls were reflowed in Ar+H/sub 2/ plasma. Without flux, the wetting between solder and UBM occurred in Ar+H/sub 2/ plasma. During plasma reflow, the solder bump reshaped and the crater on the top of bump disappeared. The bump shear strength increased as the Ni/sub 3/Sn/sub 4/ intermetallic compounds formed in the initial reflow stage but began to decrease as coarse (Cu,Ni)/sub 6/Sn/sub 5/ grew at the solder/UBM interface. As the plasma reflow time increased, the fracture mode changed from ductile fracture within the solder to brittle fracture at the solder/UBM interface. The off-centered bumps self-aligned to patterned UBM pad during plasma reflow. The micro-solder ball defects occurred at high power prolonged plasma reflow.     

凸点材料的选择对器件疲劳特性的影响

为了研究凸点材料对器件疲劳特性的影响,采用非线性有限元分析方法、统一型黏塑性本构方程和Coffin-Manson修正方程,对Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu,Sn63Pb37和Pb90Sn10三种凸点材料倒装焊器件的热疲劳特性进行了系统研究,对三种凸点的疲劳寿命进行了预测,并对Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu和Pb90Sn10两种凸点材料倒装焊器件进行了温度循环试验.结果表明,仿真结果与试验结果基本吻合.在热循环过程中,凸点阵列中距离器件中心最远的焊点,应力和应变变化最剧烈,需重点关注这些危险焊点的可靠性;含铅凸点的热疲劳特性较无铅凸点更好,更适合应用于高可靠的场合;而且随着铅含量的增加,凸点的热疲劳特性越好,疲劳寿命越长.     

Effects of pre-bump probing and bumping processes on eutectic solder bump electromigration

This paper investigates the electromigration reliability of flip chip packages with and without pre-bump wafer probing via high temperature operation life test (HTOL) using printed and electroplated bumps. Under bump metallization (UBM) of printed and electroplated bumps is a thin film of Al/Ni(V)/Cu and Ti/Cu/Ni, respectively, while the bump material consists of eutectic Sn/Pb solder. Current densities from 7380 to 20 100 A/cm² and ambient temperatures at 100, 125 and 150 °C are applied in order to study their impact on electromigration. The results reveal that the bump temperature has a higher influence than the current density when it comes to bump failures. The observed interconnect damage is from bumps with electrical current flowing upward into the UBM/bump interface (cathode). Identified failure sites and modes reveal structural damage at the region of the UBM and UBM/bump interface, in the form of solder voiding and cracking. The effects of current polarity, current crowding, and operation temperature are key factors to electromigration failures of flip chip packaging. The maximum allowable current density of the electroplated bumps is superior to the printed bumps by a factor of 3.0–3.7 times. Besides, the median time to failure (MTTF) of without-underfill packaging is preferred to that of with-underfill packaging by 1.5–2.2 times. Furthermore, the differences in MTTF between pre-bump and without pre-bump probing procedures are 2.0–19.4% and 1.6–10.3% for printed and electroplated bumps, respectively.     

Interfacial reaction and joint reliability of fine-pitch flip-chip solder bump using stencil printing method

This study was focused on the formation and reliability evaluation of solder joints with different diameters and pitches for flip chip applications. We investigated the interfacial reaction and shear strength between two different solders (Sn-37Pb and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu, in wt.%) and ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold) UBM (Under Bump Metallurgy) during multiple reflow. Firstly, we formed the flip chip solder bumps on the Ti/Cu/ENIG metallized Si wafer using a stencil printing method. After reflow, the average solder bump diameters were about 130, 160 and 190 μm, respectively. After multiple reflows, Ni₃Sn₄ intermetallic compound (IMC) layer formed at the Sn-37Pb solder/ENIG UBM interface. On the other hand, in the case of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder, (Cu,Ni)₆Sn₅ and (Ni,Cu)₃Sn₄ IMCs were formed at the interface. The shear force of the Pb-free Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu flip chip solder bump was higher than that of the conventional Sn-37Pb flip chip solder bump.     

The microstructure characterization of ultrasmall eutectic Bi-Sn solder bumps on Au/Cu/Ti and Au/Ni/Ti under-bump metallization

The microstructure of the ultrasmall eutectic Bi-Sn solder bumps on Au/Cu/Ti and Au/Ni/Ti under-bump metallizations (UBMs) was investigated as a function of cooling rate. The ultrasmall eutectic Bi-Sn solder bump, about 50 μm in diameter, was fabricated by using the lift-off method and reflowed at various cooling rates using the rapid thermal annealing system. The microstructure of the solder bump was observed using a backscattered electron (BSE) image and the intermetallic compound was identified using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and an x-ray diffractometer (XRD). The Bi facet was found at the surface of the ultrasmall Bi-Sn solder bumps on the Au/Cu/Ti UBM in almost all specimens, and the interior microstructure of the bumps was changed with the solidification rate. The faceted and polygonal intermetallic compound was found in the case of the Bi-Sn solder bump on the Au (0.1 μm)/Ni/Ti UBM, and it was confirmed to be the (Au_1−x−yBi_xNi_y)Sn₂ phase by XRD. The intermetallic compounds grown form the Au (0.1 μm)/Ni/Ti UBM interface, and they interrupted the growth of Bi and Sn phases throughout the solder bump. The ultrasmall eutectic Bi-Sn solder bumps on the Au (0.025 μm)/Ni/Ti UBM showed similar microstructures to those on the Au/Cu/Ti UBM.     

The effect of solder bump pitch on the underfill flow

An underfill encapsulant was used to fill the gap between the chip and substrate around solder joints to improve the long-term reliability of flip chip interconnect systems. The underfill encapsulant was filled by the capillary effect. In this study, the filling time and pattern of the underfill flow in the process with different bumping pitch, bump diameter, and gap size were investigated. A modified Hele-Shaw flow model, that considered the flow resistance in both the thickness direction and the restrictions between solder bumps, was used. This model estimated the flow resistance induced by the chip and substrate as well as the solder bumps, and provided a reasonable flow front prediction. A modified model that considered the effect of fine pitch solder bumps was also proposed to estimate the capillary force in fine pitch arrangements. It was found that, on a full array solder bump pattern, the filling flow was actually faster for fine pitch bumps in some arrangements. The filling time of the underfill process depends on the parameters of bumping pitch, bump diameter, and gap size. A proposed capillary force parameter can provide information on bump pattern design for facilitating the underfilling process.     

Reliability issues in Pb-free solder joint miniaturization

As solder joints become increasingly miniaturized to meet the severe demands of future electronic packaging, it is vitally important to consider whether the solder joint size and geometry could become reliability issues and thereby affect implementation of the Pb-free solders. In this study, three bumping techniques, i.e., solder dipping, stencil printing followed by solder reflow, and electroplating of solders with subsequent reflow, were used to investigate the interfacial interactions of molten Sn-3.5Ag, Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu, and pure Sn solders on a copper pad at 240°C. The resultant interfacial microstructures, coming from a variety of Cu pads, with sizes ranging from 1 mm to 25 μm, and representing different solder bump geometries, have been investigated. In addition, a two-dimensional thermodynamic/kinetic model has been developed to assist the understanding of the kinetics of interdiffusion and the formation of interfacial intermetallic compounds. Experimental results and theoretical predictions both suggest that the solder bump size and geometry can influence the as-soldered microstructure; therefore, this factor should be taken into consideration for the design of future reliable ultrafine Pb-free solder joints.     

Preparation and Temperature Cycling Reliability of Electroless Ni(P) Under Bump Metallization

The reliability of electroless Ni(P) under-bump metallization (UBM) was evaluated via temperature cycling and solder bump shear strength tests. Commercial diodes and dummy dies fabricated in-house were used as substrates for the electroless Ni(P) UBM deposition. Solder bumps were formed after reflowing eutectic 63Sn37Pb solder foils over the Ni(P) UBM. The solder bump shear strength was measured before and after different temperature cycling. The results from this study showed that the UBM thickness and dimension had important effects on the solder bump shear strength and reliability. Both the larger UBM dimension and larger UBM thickness tended to induce higher stress in the UBM, which resulted in the lower solder bump shear strength and lower temperature cycling reliability. A better UBM structure solution for high current electronic packaging application is indicated in this paper     

Thermosonic bonding of lead-free solder with metal bump for flip-chip bonding

While extensive research on the lead-free solder has been conducted, the high melting temperature of the lead-free solder has detrimental effects on the packages. Thermosonic bonding between metal bumps and lead-free solder using the longitudinal ultrasonic is investigated through numerical analysis and experiments for low-temperature soldering. The results of numerical calculation and measured viscoelastic properties show that a substantial amount of heat is generated in the solder bump due to viscoelastic heating. When the Au bump is thermosonically bonded to the lead-free solder bump (Sn-3%Ag-0.5%Cu), the entire Au bump is dissolved rapidly into the solder within 1 sec, which is caused by the scrubbing action of the ultrasonic. More reliable solder joints are obtained using the Cu/Ni/Au bump, which can be applied to flip-chip bonding.     

Reliability investigations of hard core solder bumps using mechanical palladium bumps and SnPb solder

The choice of solder joint metallurgy is a key issue especially for the reliability of flip-chip assemblies. Besides the metallurgical systems already widely used and well understood, new materials are emerging as solderable under bump metallization (UBM). For single chip bumping Pd stud bumps form a solid core under the solder layer. These hard core solder bumps are an adequate solution if single dies are available only and the chosen assembly technology is flip chip soldering. The scope of this paper is to summarize the results from aging of lead/tin solder bumps on palladium. The growth of intermetallic and its impact on the mechanical reliability are investigated.