The effect of lowering salt on the physicochemical,microbiological and sensory properties of São João cheese of Pico Island

São João cheeses with varying curd dry salting treatments were made with decreasing levels of salt (sodium chloride): 4 (control), 3, 2 and 1% (w/w), along with the salt‐free version. The cheeses were ripened at 11 °C over a 40‐day period, and the effect of lowering salt on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties of the cheese was studied. Reduced salt resulted in a concomitant moisture decrease with protein increase, ash and sodium reduction among experimental cheeses at the same ripening day, but there were no significant differences in pH, acidity and fat, or in the microbiological quality. Triangle tests indicated perceptible differences between test and control cheeses at the level of 2% NaCl (w/w) or less, but not with the cheese salted with 3 g NaCl/100 g. Considering the sensory, the physicochemical and the microbiological results, the cheese formulated at 3% NaCl (w/w) (presenting a reduction of 25% in salt) is feasible on an industrial scale, being indistinguishable by the regular consumer.     

Calcium lactate as an attractive compound to partly replace salt in blue-veined cheese

In addition to their high sodium content, cheeses are thought to induce an acid load to the body, which is associated with deleterious effects on consumers' health. Our objective was to explore the use of alkalinizing salts in partial substitution of NaCl to reduce both the sodium content and the acid-forming potential of cheese, without altering its sensory properties. Blue-veined cheeses were produced under industrial conditions, using brine salting followed by dry salting with a 4:1 (wt/wt) mixture of calcium lactate:NaCl or calcium citrate:NaCl. Sodium chloride was used in 2 granulometries: coarse (control treatment) and fine, to obtain homogeneous mixtures with the organic salts. Cheeses were then ripened for 56 d. No major appearance defects were observed during ripening. Calcium lactate substitution decreased the Na content of the cheese core by 33%, and calcium citrate substitution increased the citrate content of the cheese core by 410%, respectively, compared with fine NaCl. This study highlighted the substantial role of salt granulometry in sodium content, with the use of the coarse salt reducing the sodium content by 21% compared with fine salt. Sensory profiles showed nonsignificant differences in bitter and salty perceptions of salt-substituted cheeses with calcium lactate and calcium citrate compared with control cheeses. The use of calcium lactate should be considered to reduce the sodium content and improve the nutritional quality of cheeses while maintaining the sensory quality of the products. Alkalinizing organic salts could replace the acidifying salts KCl or CaCl₂, which are currently used in salt replacement and are not recommended for consumers with renal disease. The method described here should be considered by cheese-making producers to improve the nutritional quality of cheese. Additional nutritional optimization strategies are suggested.     

Manufacture of low-sodium Minas fresh cheese: effect of the partial replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride

We investigated the effect of sodium reduction by partial substitution of sodium chloride (NaCl) with potassium chloride (KCl) on the manufacture of Minas fresh cheese during 21 d of refrigerated storage. Four treatments of low-sodium Minas fresh cheese were manufactured, with partial replacement of NaCl by KCl at 0, 25, 50, and 75% (wt/wt), respectively. The cheeses showed differences in the content of moisture, ash, protein, salt, and lipid contents, as well as on the extent of proteolysis and hardness throughout the storage period. However, no difference was observed among treatments within each storage day tested. The partial substitution of NaCl by KCl decreased up to 51.8% the sodium concentration of the cheeses produced. The consumer test indicated that it is possible to manufacture a low-sodium Minas fresh cheese that is acceptable to consumers by partial substitution of NaCl by KCl at 25% (wt/wt) in the salting step.     

Salt Reduction in a Model High‐Salt Akawi Cheese: Effects on Bacterial Activity,pH, Moisture,Potential Bioactive Peptides,Amino Acids,and Growth of Human Colon Cells

This study evaluated the effects of sodium chloride reduction and its substitution with potassium chloride on Akawi cheese during storage for 30 d at 4 °C. Survival of probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, and Bifidobacterium longum) and starter bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus), angiotensin‐converting enzyme‐inhibitory and antioxidant activities, and concentrations of standard amino acids as affected by storage in different brine solutions (10% NaCl, 7.5% NaCl, 7.5% NaCl+KCl [1:1], 5% NaCl, and 5% NaCl+KCl [1:1]) were investigated. Furthermore, viability of human colon cells and human colon cancer cells as affected by the extract showing improved peptide profiles, highest release of amino acids and antioxidant activity (that is, from cheese brined in 7.5% NaCl+KCl) was evaluated. Significant increase was observed in survival of probiotic bacteria in cheeses with low salt after 30 d. Calcium content decreased slightly during storage in all cheeses brined in various solutions. Further, no significant changes were observed in ACE‐inhibitory activity and antioxidant activity of cheeses during storage. Interestingly, concentrations of 4 essential amino acids (phenylalanine, tryptophan, valine, and leucine) increased significantly during storage in brine solutions containing 7.5% total salt. Low concentration of cheese extract (100 μg/mL) significantly improved the growth of normal human colon cells, and reduced the growth of human colon cancer cells. Overall, the study revealed that cheese extracts from reduced‐NaCl brine improved the growth of human colon cells, and the release of essential amino acids, but did not affect the activities of potential bioactive peptides.     

Salty taste in dairy foods: can we reduce the salt?

Sodium can be found in many sources of the US diet. Dietary guidelines currently suggest a maximum intake of 2,300 mg of sodium (6 g of sodium chloride) per day, whereas the average consumer intake is 3,600 mg of sodium (9 g of sodium chloride) per day. The main health concern with high consumption of sodium is hypertension. The objectives of this study were to identify the salty taste intensity of sodium chloride in water and various dairy food matrices, and to identify the just-noticeable difference in concentration at which consumers noticed a decrease in salty taste in these food products. Solutions and food products (water, cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soup) were prepared with sodium chloride ranging in concentration from 0.008 to 0.06 M. Seventeen panelists evaluated the salty intensity of each product in triplicate using a magnitude estimation scale. In subsequent tests, panelists (n = 50) evaluated salty intensity of these food products in separate sessions using an ascending force choice method to determine the just-noticeable difference. Consumer acceptance tests (n = 75 consumers) were conducted with cottage cheeses with and without sodium reductions and under conditions with and without health benefits of sodium reduction. The magnitude estimation scale data were log-transformed, and all data were analyzed by ANOVA with Fisher's least significant difference for means separation. The linear proportion of the power function in the salty taste intensity curve for sodium chloride solutions and the 3 foods was between 0.03 and 0.20 M. Consumers were able to notice and correctly identify reductions in salt concentration of less than 20% in all products. When consumers were informed of sodium reduction and its health benefits before tasting cottage cheese with lower sodium (4-12%), overall liking scores for the lower sodium cottage cheeses were not different from higher sodium cottage cheeses. These results suggest that reducing sodium in cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soups may be challenging and that exploration of sodium chloride alternatives in these foods is warranted. Appropriate product positioning or advertising may be beneficial to consumer acceptance of lower sodium types of products.     

Reduction of Sodium and Fat Levels in Natural and Processed Cheeses: Scientific and Technological Aspects

ABSTRACT: The various types of cheese are nutrient‐dense foods that are good sources of calcium, phosphorus, and protein. They are also important ingredients in many highly consumed foods such as pizza, cheeseburgers, and sauces. However, they are also perceived as being high in fat and sodium. Consumers have indicated that they would like to continue utilizing cheese in their diet but would prefer to have lower‐fat and lower‐sodium products. Fat and salt are important elements in the flavor, texture, food safety, and overall acceptability of cheese. Alternatives to fat and salt are being investigated but have not been found to be acceptable, especially in those products that meet the FDA's definition of low‐fat and/or low‐sodium. This review is primarily a report on the current status of research to develop desirable cheeses with low‐fat and/or low‐sodium, their regulatory and labeling status, consumer acceptability, and challenges for further efforts.     

Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using naturally brewed soy sauce

Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) serves important functions in processed meats, contributing to desirable quality and food safety characteristics; however, renewed interest exists in reducing sodium in the human diet despite sodium being a required component of the diet for physiological regulation. This study investigated consumer sensory and quality impacts from replacement of normally added NaCl (flake salt) with naturally brewed soy sauce (SS). Varying levels of SS were used with NaCl and/or potassium chloride (KCl) to comprise treatments (TRT) which investigated flake salt replacement (Phase I) and sodium reduction (Phases II and III). Phase I identified a 50% replacement of NaCl with SS as the baseline for subsequent phases. Phase II indicated that the inclusion of SS could allow for a 20% NaCl reduction without adverse effects on quality or sensory attributes. Phase III results demonstrated that it was feasible to reduce NaCl by 35% via the inclusion of KCl in SS containing frankfurters without major quality or sensory changes.     

Reduction in sodium content of fresh,semihard Tzfat cheese using salt replacer mixtures: taste,texture and shelf life evaluation

Tzfat cheese is a semihard, fresh cheese commonly produced in Israel, with an average sodium content of 1000 mg/100 g cheese. Reduction in sodium levels by 30% and 50% (w/w) with and without salt replacer mixtures was assessed in terms of cheese physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties. Cheese, containing 30% KCl and 70% NaCl had the closest taste profile to the control cheese, according to electronic tongue analysis. All cheeses underwent a similar increase in extent of proteolysis and microbial growth during shelf life. This study demonstrates the possibility of reducing the sodium content in fresh, semihard cheeses like Tzfat cheese by more than 30% using salt replacer mixtures, without significantly affecting quality.     

Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using a natural flavor enhancer

Sodium chloride (NaCl; salt) contributes to important quality and food safety properties of processed meats. However, renewed interest exists in reducing sodium in the human diet. This study investigated quality and sensory impacts associated with partial replacement and/or reduction of normally added NaCl using a natural flavor enhancer (NFE) in frankfurters. Varying levels of NFE were used with NaCl and/or potassium chloride (KCl) to comprise treatments (TRT) which investigated flake salt replacement (Phase I) and sodium reduction (Phases II and III). Phase I sensory and quality results identified a 50% replacement of NaCl with NFE as the baseline for subsequent phases. Phase II indicated that the inclusion of NFE could allow for a 20% NaCl reduction without adverse effects on quality or sensory attributes. Phase III results demonstrated that it was feasible to reduce NaCl by 35% via the inclusion of KCl in NFE containing frankfurters without major quality or sensory changes.     

Salt reduction in film‐ripened,semihard Edam cheese

As a potential measure to improve public health, this study aimed to reduce the sodium (Na) content of film‐ripened, semihard Edam cheese to ≤0.4 g Na/100 g (≤1 g NaCl/100 g), while retaining typical quality and safety characteristics. For this, mineral salt substitutions containing potassium (K) were compared with simple NaCl reduction in brine, alongside an adjustment of starter cultures in an effort to enhance taste. Desired Na and K values were achieved, and microbial quality was not compromised in Na‐reduced Edam after six weeks of ripening. However, all Na‐reduced cheeses tasted bitter and were therefore organoleptically unsatisfactory.     

Salt Reduction in Vegetable Fermentation: Reality or Desire?

NaCl is a widely used chemical in food processing which affects sensory characteristics and safety; in fact, its presence is frequently essential for the proper preservation of the products. Because the intake of high contents of sodium is linked to adverse effects on human health, consumers demand foods with low-sodium content. A 1st step to reduce the use of salt would imply the proper application of this compound, reducing its levels to those technologically necessary. In addition, different chloride salts have been evaluated as replacers for NaCl, but KCl, CaCl₂, and ZnCl₂ show the most promising perspectives of use. However, prior to any food reformulation, there is a need for exhaustive research before its application at industrial level. Salt reduction may lead to an increased risk in the survival/ growth of pathogens and may also alter food flavor and cause economic losses. This review deals with the technological, microbiological, sensorial, and health aspects of the potential low-salt and salt-substituted vegetable products and how this important segment of the food industry is responding to consumer demand.     

Structure and composition of model cheeses influence sodium NMR mobility,kinetics of sodium release and sodium partition coefficients

The mobility and release of sodium ions were assessed in model cheeses with three different lipid/protein ratios, with or without added NaCl. The rheological properties of the cheeses were analysed using uniaxial compression tests. Microstructure was characterised by confocal laser scanning microscopy. ²³Na nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to study the molecular mobility of sodium ions in model cheeses through measurements of the relaxation and creation times. Greater mobility was observed in cheeses containing a lower protein content and with added NaCl. The kinetics of sodium release from the cheese to an aqueous phase was correlated with the mobility of sodium ions. The highest rates of sodium release were observed with a lower protein content and with added NaCl. The water/cheese partition coefficients of sodium increased when NaCl was added or the protein content was higher. The study highlighted the effect of model cheese characteristics on molecular and macroscopic behaviours of sodium.     

Salt Reduction in Foods Using Naturally Brewed Soy Sauce

ABSTRACT:  In recent years, health concerns related to salt/sodium chloride consumption have caused an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, sodium chloride (NaCl) reduction in foods has become an important challenge. The more so, since a decrease in NaCl content is often reported to be associated with a decrease in consumer acceptance. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether or not it would be possible to reduce the NaCl content in standard Western European foods by replacing it with naturally brewed soy sauce. Three types of foods were investigated: salad dressing ( n  = 56), soup ( n  = 52), and stir-fried pork ( n  = 57). In the 1st step, an exchange rate (ER) by which NaCl can be replaced with soy sauce without a significant change in the overall taste intensity was established per product type, by means of alternative forced choice tests. In the 2nd step, the same consumers evaluated 5 samples per product type with varying NaCl and/or soy sauce content on pleasantness and several sensory attributes. The results showed that it was possible to achieve a NaCl reduction in the tested foods of, respectively, 50%, 17%, and 29% without leading to significant losses in either overall taste intensity or product pleasantness. These results suggest that it is possible to replace NaCl in foods with naturally brewed soy sauce without lowering the overall taste intensity and to reduce the total NaCl content in these foods without decreasing their consumer acceptance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Health concerns related to salt consumption cause an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, the development of foods with reduced salt content without decreasing the consumer acceptance is an important challenge for the food industry. A new possible salt reduction approach is described in the present article: The replacement of salt with naturally brewed soy sauce.     

Potassium Chloride‐Based Salt Substitutes: A Critical Review with a Focus on the Patent Literature

High dietary sodium intake (DSI) represents a major health‐related public issue in most countries all over the world. Such a diet can lead to increased risk of hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases. This situation has resulted in important public policies for various salt reduction strategies. One of these is based on the use of salt substitutes or salts with reduced sodium content. Among several options, potassium chloride (KCl) has proved to be a key nutritional ingredient for this purpose. It provides similar properties like common salt (NaCl), but with several unwanted side effects, of which the most important have relatively offensive side tastes: bitter, acrid, and metallic. To successfully formulate KCl‐based salt substitutes, numerous taste‐improving agents and formulation concepts have been used. The field of salt substitutes is mainly described in the patent literature. Since patents are both scientific and legal documents, careful and critical consideration is required when using them as a source of scientific information. This review brings a deep insight into the area of KCl‐based salt substitutes with a focus on the patent literature through the eyes of food science and technology. The most important classes of taste‐improving agents that have been employed in numerous formulation concepts of KCl‐based salt substitutes are nutritionally acceptable mineral salts; food acids, amino acids, and their nutritionally acceptable salts; simple carbohydrates and sugar substitutes; food polymers; umami ingredients; spices, vegetables, and flavors; miscellaneous taste improvers; as well as a plethora of their specific combinations. A critical review of the respective patent literature is given.     

Effect of cation, sodium or potassium, on casein hydration and fat emulsification during imitation cheese manufacture and post-manufacture functionality

Imitation cheeses (48 g moisture/100 g cheese), in which the salt (NaCl) and sodium emulsifying salts were partially or wholly replaced with their potassium equivalents were manufactured. The effect of the replacement on manufacture and post-manufacture functionality (microstructure, texture, flowability, dynamic rheology and NMR T₂ relaxometry) was assessed. The replacement of sodium salts with potassium equivalents led to decreased torque values throughout the manufacture and to slight changes in functional properties including increased fat globule size and flowability, decreased hardness and cohesiveness. The potassium-salt cheeses exhibited adhesiveness, which was absent in the standard cheese, and also showed lower microbial stability.     

食品减盐方法研究进展

食盐作为日常生活中最常见的调味品之一,其主要成分氯化钠是人体中必不可少的物质。食盐具有改善食品风味和质构、延长食品货架期等作用。但摄入过量的食盐会增加患高血压、冠心病等心血管疾病的风险。本文综述了在不影响食品风味品质前提下,达到“减盐不减咸”目的的方法,如非钠盐替代、添加天然提取物或咸味肽、多感官协同作用增强咸味感知、食盐晶体结构优化、食品质构重组等,并对各种减盐方法的基本原理、特点以及研究进展做了详细阐述,以期为食品减盐方法和策略的深入研究提供科学依据和理论参考。     

Determining salt concentrations for equivalent water activity in reduced-sodium cheese by use of a model system

The range of sodium chloride (salt)-to-moisture ratio is critical in producing high-quality cheese products. The salt-to-moisture ratio has numerous effects on cheese quality, including controlling water activity (a_w). Therefore, when attempting to decrease the sodium content of natural cheese it is important to calculate the amount of replacement salts necessary to create the same a_w as the full-sodium target (when using the same cheese making procedure). Most attempts to decrease sodium using replacement salts have used concentrations too low to create the equivalent a_w due to the differences in the molecular weight of the replacers compared with salt. This could be because of the desire to minimize off-flavors inherent in the replacement salts, but it complicates the ability to conclude that the replacement salts are the cause of off-flavors such as bitter. The objective of this study was to develop a model system that could be used to measure a_w directly, without manufacturing cheese, to allow cheese makers to determine the salt and salt replacer concentrations needed to achieve the equivalent a_w for their existing full-sodium control formulas. All-purpose flour, salt, and salt replacers (potassium chloride, modified potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride) were blended with butter and water at concentrations that approximated the solids, fat, and moisture contents of typical Cheddar cheese. Salt and salt replacers were applied to the model systems at concentrations predicted by Raoult's law. The a_w of the model samples was measured on a water activity meter, and concentrations were adjusted using Raoult's law if they differed from those of the full-sodium model. Based on the results determined using the model system, stirred-curd pilot-scale batches of reduced- and full-sodium Cheddar cheese were manufactured in duplicate. Water activity, pH, and gross composition were measured and evaluated statistically by linear mixed model. The model system method accurately determined the concentrations of salt and salt replacer necessary to achieve the same a_w as the full-sodium control in pilot-scale cheese using different replacement salts.     

The effect of sodium reduction with and without potassium chloride on the survival of Listeria monocytogenes in Cheddar cheese

Sodium chloride (NaCl) in cheese contributes to flavor and texture directly and by its effect on microbial and enzymatic activity. The salt-to-moisture ratio (S/M) is used to gauge if conditions for producing good-quality cheese have been met. Reductions in salt that deviate from the ideal S/M range could result in changing culture acidification profiles during cheese making. Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis or Lc. lactis ssp. cremoris are both used as cultures in Cheddar cheese manufacture, but Lc. lactis ssp. lactis has a higher salt and pH tolerance than Lc. lactis ssp. cremoris. Both salt and pH are used to control growth and survival of Listeria monocytogenes and salts such as KCl are commonly used to replace the effects of NaCl in food when NaCl is reduced. The objectives of this project were to determine the effects of sodium reduction, KCl use, and the subspecies of Lc. lactis used on L. monocytogenes survival in stirred-curd Cheddar cheese. Cheese was manufactured with either Lc. lactis ssp. lactis or Lc. lactis ssp. cremoris. At the salting step, curd was divided and salted with a concentration targeted to produce a final cheese with 600 mg of sodium/100 g (control), 25% reduced sodium (450 mg of sodium/100 g; both with and without KCl), and low sodium (53% sodium reduction or 280 mg of sodium/100 g; both with and without KCl). Potassium chloride was added on a molar equivalent to the NaCl it replaced to maintain an equivalent S/M. Cheese was inoculated with a 5-strain cocktail of L. monocytogenes at different times during aging to simulate postprocessing contamination, and counts were monitored over 27 or 50 d, depending on incubation temperature (12 or 5°C, respectively). In cheese inoculated with 4 log₁₀ cfu of L. monocytogenes/g 2 wk after manufacture, viable counts declined by more than 3 log₁₀ cfu/g in all treatments over 60 d. When inoculated with 5 log₁₀ cfu/g at 3 mo of cheese age, L. monocytogenes counts in Cheddar cheese were also reduced during storage, but by less than 1.5 log₁₀ cfu/g after 50 d. However, cheese with a 50% reduction in sodium without KCl had higher counts than full-sodium cheese at the end of 50 d of incubation at 4°C when inoculated at 3 mo. When inoculated at 8 mo postmanufacture, this trend was only observed in 50% reduced sodium with KCl, for cheese manufactured with both cultures. This enhanced survival for 50% reduced-sodium cheese was not seen when a higher incubation temperature (12°C) was used when cheese was inoculated at 3 mo of age and monitored for 27 d (no difference in treatments was observed at this incubation temperature). In the event of postprocessing contamination during later stages of ripening, L. monocytogenes was capable of survival in Cheddar cheese regardless of which culture was used, whether or not sodium had been reduced by as much as 50% from standard concentrations, or if KCl had been added to maintain the effective S/M of full-sodium Cheddar cheese.