Measurements of thermal diffusivity of boron-silicon film-on-glass structure using phase detection method of photothermal deflection spectroscopy

The phase detection method of photothermal deflection spectroscopy in the transverse configuration was used to measure the overall thermal diffusivity of silicon-boron (Si-B) alloy film on Corning 7059 glass substrate. Results were attained by observing the phase of deflection of the probe beam when it scanned above the film surface relative to the pump beam. Measurements were repeated for different modulation frequencies of the pump beam. Furthermore, both bouncing and skimming configurations were used. The effect of varying the distance between the probe beam and film surface was investigated.     

Thin-Film Thermophysical Property Characterization by Scanning Laser Thermoelectric Microscope

This work presents a scanning laser-based thermal diffusivity measurement technique for thin films as well as for bulk materials. In this technique, a modulated laser beam is focused through a transparent substrate onto the film–substrate interface. The generated thermal wave is detected using a fast-responding thermocouple formed between the sample surface and the tip of a sharp probe. By scanning the laser beam around the thermocouple, the amplitude and phase distributions of the thermal wave are obtained with micrometer resolution. The thermal diffusivity of the film is determined by fitting the obtained phase signal with a three-dimensional heat conduction model. Experimental results are presented for a 150-nm gold film evaporated on a glass substrate.     

Time evolution of reflective thermal lenses and measurement of thermal diffusivity in bulk solids

A simple method for optically measuring the thermal diffusivity of solids is demonstrated. The thermal displacement created on a substrate by a focused laser beam is determined from the divergence that it induces in a weak probe beam. The dynamics of the surface lens and the amplitude of the probe beam's divergence are then used to determine the thermal diffusivity of the substrate. Several materials that span a wide range of thermal properties are studied.     

Self-regulated, droplet-based sample chopper for microfluidic absorbance detection

Akin to optical beam chopping, we demonstrate that formation and routing of aqueous droplets in oil can chop a fluidic sample to permit phase sensitive detection. This hand-operated microfluidic sample chopper (μChopper) greatly reduces the detection limit of molecular absorbance in a 27 μm optical path. With direct dependence on path length, absorbance is fundamentally incompatible with microfluidics. While other microfluidic absorbance approaches use complex additions to fabrication, such as fiber coupling and increased optical paths, this self-regulated μChopper uses opposing droplet generators to passively alternate sample and reference droplets at ~10 Hz each. Each droplet's identity is automatically locked-in to its generator, allowing downstream lock-in analysis to nearly eliminate large signal drift or 1/f noise. With a lock-in time constant of 1.9 s and total interrogated volume of 59 nL (122 droplets), a detection limit of 3.0 × 10(-4) absorbance units or 500 nM bromophenol blue (BPB) (29 fmol) was achieved using only an optical microscope and a standard, single-depth (27 μm) microfluidic device. The system was further applied to nanoliter pH sensing and validated with a spectrophotometer. The μChopper represents a fluidic analog to an optical beam chopper, and the self-regulated sample/reference droplet alternation promotes ease of use.     

H型亚微米梁的混频特性测量

本文简述了H型亚微米梁的工艺实现过程,从实验上详细研究H型梁的两种混频方式:向下混频和向上混频.考察的H型梁长度分别为8μm、10μm、12μm和15μm,小激励下谐振频率分别为13.30 MHz、8.77 MHz、6.12 MHz和3.65 MHz.通过在梁上施加两路不同频率的静电激励信号,调整两信号频率差值及和值在梁的本振频率附近变化,经过梁的自适应过程实现信号混频,最后由多普勒测振仪检测梁的混频特性.实验结果表明梁在向下混频时的振幅随两路信号频率的平移而改变,出现所谓的窗口效应;对于这两种混频方式,混频分量越接近梁的本征频率,梁的振幅越大,反之梁振幅下降越多;在输入信号功率均设置为14 dBm时,对比向上混频,向下混频使得梁的振幅更大,诸如12μm长的梁向下混频时梁振幅为4.082 nm,而向上混频时混频处振幅仅为1.826 nm.     

基于石英音叉探针的原子力显微镜测头开发

基于石英音叉探针开发了一种自感应原子力显微镜(AFM)测头。该测头通过自身输出电信号检测悬臂振幅变化,无需外部光学检测部件,易于集成。针对测头设计了微弱电流提取及寄生电容补偿电路。利用商业化锁相放大器实现了对测头幅度信号的获取。在此基础上对测头在调幅模式下的力-距离曲线和分辨力进行了测试。利用锁相放大器内置的PID模块实现了调幅模式下对样品表面形貌的测量。实验证明,该测头灵敏度为0.624 mV/nm,分辨力优于2 nm。     

A Novel Method for Determination of the Thermal Diffusivity of Thin Films Using a Modulated CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Laser

The thermal diffusivity of thin metal films has been measured by combining a fast infrared radiation thermometer with a mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector and a CO₂ laser modulated at a radio frequency up to 2 MHz. The laser output beam modulated by an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) is directed to the front surface of the blackened copper thin film (10m thick, 9.5 mm in diameter). The thermal radiation from the back surface of the sample is detected. From the observed phase delay in the detected signal of 0.68 radian to the input laser beam, the thermal diffusivity is determined to be 1.11 × 10^-4m²·s^-1, which agrees well with the value of 0.99 × 10^-4m²·s^-1 calculated from literature results. The method is generally applicable for measurements of thermal properties of nano/micro materials.Paper presented at the Fifteenth Symposium on Thermophysical Properties, June 22--27, 2003, Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.     

Measurement of the thermal conductivity of individual carbon nanotubes by the four-point three-omega method

The thermal conductivity of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes was measured by utilizing the four-point-probe third-harmonic method, based on the fact that the third harmonic amplitude and phase as a response to applied alternate current at fundamental frequency, omega, can be expressed in terms of thermal conductivity and diffusivity. To this end, a microfabricated device composed of four metal electrodes was modified to manufacture nanometer-sized wires by using a focused ion beam source. A carbon nanotube could then be suspended over a deep trench milled by the focused ion beam, preventing heat loss to the substrate. Compared with the two-point-probe technique, a significant improvement in accuracy is assured by using four probes, because the contact contribution to the determination of the thermal conductivity is eliminated, making it possible to measure the correct signals of first and third harmonics. The multiwalled carbon nanotube was modeled as a one-dimensional diffusive energy transporter and its thermal conductivity was measured at room temperature under vacuum to be 300 +/- 20 W/mK.     

Spatially resolved thermal diffusivity measurements on functionally graded materials

Photothermal generation of thermal waves was used in combination with the probe beam deflection technique to study the thermal diffusivity of functionally graded materials (FGMs) quantitatively. An amplitude modulated Ar ion laser was used as a heat source and the HeNe probe laser was reflected from the specimen surface at almost normal incidence. It is demonstrated that this measuring technique can be used for a precise determination of the thermal diffusivity for a wide variety of materials if appropriate measuring conditions are chosen. The precision of the thermal diffusivity measurement was better than 5% for all materials studied. The achieved spatial resolution of the thermal diffusivity measurement was about 100 m, but higher spatial resolutions can be achieved if necessary. In a graded Al₂O₃/Al composite local fluctuations of the thermal diffusivity were observed due to the coarseness of the microstructure, but the overall behaviour of the thermal conductivity could be described well by the Maxwell-Eucken relationship. In a functionally graded AlCu alloy, a smooth thermal diffusivity profile was observed in the region where the alloy consisted of a solid solution of Cu in Al.     

Optimized Photothermal Lens Determination of Nonlinear Absorption

An optimized pump–probe mode-mismatched photothermal lens experiment aimed at determination of nonlinear absorption of an optical sample is reported. The pump beam generates a local thermal gradient or thermal lens that is tested by the probe light. The pump beam is tightly focused, and the probe beam is highly collimated. Changes in the probe light transmission through a small aperture located at some distance from the sample provide the signal. Scanning of the sample around the focal point yields a single-peaked Z-scan signature with a width several times larger than the pump Rayleigh range for linear absorption. If nonlinear absorption is dominant, the width of the peak is significantly smaller and of the order of the Rayleigh range of the pump field. If linear and nonlinear absorption are present simultaneously, a double-peaked Z-scan signature is obtained. In this situation, the linear and nonlinear absorption contributions can be easily separated and compared to each other for calibration purposes. Using the known values of linear absorption, nonlinear absorption coefficients can be estimated with good accuracy. The method is tested by studying nonlinear absorption in nitrobenzene and iron oxide water colloids. The values of the effective nonlinear absorption coefficients are determined. The physical origin of nonlinear absorption in both types of samples is also discussed.     

Modelling of the lock-in thermography process through finite element method for estimating the rail squat defects

Squats are a major problem on the world railways. The non-destructive evaluation technique is becoming increasingly attractive in the detection of near surface defects on track. Non-destructive thermal evaluation is one such method of inspection technique that can be used for the detection of near surface defects. Its sub-group of lock-in thermography is under analysis. Lock-in thermography utilizes an infrared camera to detect the thermal waves and then produces a thermal image, which displays the local thermal wave variation in phase or amplitude. There are few studies into the actual experimental representation of complex subsurface defects when concerning lock-in thermography processes. While this may be less of a concern given the purpose of numerical defect characterization to reduce the need for extensive experimental pre-tests, the necessity for (artificial) representations of a defect will inevitably be required for validation. The research outlined in this paper examines the use of 3D finite element modelling (FEM) as a potential flexible tool in simulating the lock-in thermography process for detecting squats in track. In addition, lock-in analysis proved that the correct frequency range had to be selected for the material to detect the defect. As maximum positive and negative phase angles were located at “optimum” frequencies, at certain frequencies lead to minimal phase angle difference to which the defects were not detectable (blind frequency) by using the incorrect testing. The 3D finite element method has advantage for determining the “optimum” thermal excitation frequencies compare with experimental investigation. The experimental results show that 3D FEM models can be used to defect the location and the depth of squats in the railway.     

Investigating Thermal Parameters of PVDF Sensor in the Front Pyroelectric Configuration

A metalized PVDF pyroelectric (PE) sensor was used as an optically opaque sensor and in a thermally thick regime for both sensor and sample, instead of a very thick sensor in the conventional front PE configuration. From the frequency dependence measurements, the normalized amplitude and phase signal were independently analyzed to obtain the thermal effusivity of the sensor. The differential normalized amplitude measured with water as a substrate was analyzed to determine the sensor thermal diffusivity. The PVDF thermal diffusivity and thermal effusivity agree with literature values. Then, from the known thermal parameters of the sensor, the thermal effusivity of a standard liquid sample, glycerol, and other liquids were obtained by the similar procedure.     

Narrow-band correction of the residual amplitude modulation in frequency-modulation spectroscopy

We have developed a narrow-band controller in the MHz range, based on a field-programmable gate array. It is used to control the probe beam intensity in frequency-modulated spectroscopy experiments with an acoustooptic modulator. The residual amplitude modulation at the modulation frequency (2.5 MHz) is reduced by 50 dB. The first-harmonic detection of the signals is operated in saturation spectroscopy of I/sub 2/ at 514.5 nm and 501.7 nm. A reduction of the background noise and a large increase in the signal-to-noise ratio are obtained.     

Frequency modulated thermal wave imaging for visualizing power density of electromagnetic waves on plane surfaces

In this article, Frequency Modulated Thermal Wave Imaging (FMTWI) [1–6] is introduced for the first time for determining power distribution of electromagnetic waves on plane surfaces. The advantage with this technique is that we can extract multiple amplitude and phase images from a single run of experiment. The applied excitation signal in this technique is a frequency modulated chirp signal instead of a single frequency signal used in conventional lock-in infrared (IR) thermography [7–11].

The thermal images obtained using FMTWI can be used qualitatively, e.g., to detect field leakage near electromagnetic junctions and microstrip feed lines. As a practical demonstration of this technique, an example of 2 × 2 patch antenna array at 8 GHz is considered. First, amplitude images at various modulation frequencies are obtained. Next, signal to noise ratio (SNR) values at each frequency are calculated. It is seen that SNR is lower at higher frequencies. It is observed that at higher modulation frequencies, micro-strip lines feeding the individual patch antennas of the array, are not visible in amplitude images, while at lower frequencies they are clearly visible

Mathematical modeling of the microwave absorption screen has also been carried out to show variations of incident, reflected, and transmitted powers as a function of screen surface impedance. It is also observed that the screen minimally perturbs the electromagnetic fields.     

Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Si and GaAs Wafers Using the Photothermal Displacement Technique

Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of Si and GaAs wafers were measured using the photothermal displacement technique, and the temperature dependence of these two quantities was investigated. Thermal diffusivity was obtained from the phase difference between the heating source and the signal, and thermal conductivity was determined from the maximum value of the signal amplitude in the temperature range 80 to 300 K. It was verified that an increase in doping concentration gives rise to a decrease in thermal conductivity at low temperatures. The experimental results obtained on samples with different types and doping concentrations are consistent with those expected from theoretical considerations.     

Image processing for a scanning acoustic microscope that measures amplitude and phase

Several image-processing techniques for a low-frequency (3 to 10 MHz) scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) that measures amplitude and phase are described. This microscope is capable of measuring both the amplitude and phase of the reflected and transmitted signals, in contrast with most earlier implementations that only measure the amplitude. By measuring phase, the authors can carry out quantitative nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and image processing that cannot be done with amplitude or phase alone. The effective 2-D point spread function of the microscope is modified by spatial filtering of the digitized complex images. In various images, the transverse resolution is improved by about 20%, aberration of images of subsurface features is corrected, and surface features are numerically defocused. The last process is used to remove the obscuring effect of surface roughness from images of subsurface features.     

Photothermal Mirror Method for the Study of Thermal Diffusivity and Thermo-Elastic Properties of Opaque Solid Materials

We have carried out the theoretical and experimental time evolution and amplitude study of the photothermal mirror signal generated by focusing a laser beam on the surface of a suite of solid samples. Based on a theoretical model that resolves the thermal diffusivity equation and the equation for thermo-elastic deformations simultaneously, we have calculated the transient time evolution and amplitude of the signal. We observe the same time evolution pattern for samples as diverse as glass, quartz, metals, and synthetic ceramic oxides. The data have yielded a linear dependence between the time build-up of the thermal mirror and the inverse of the thermal diffusivity for all the samples. For moderate power levels, we also observe a linear behavior between the stationary value of the signal and the thermally induced phase shift value. From the calibration curves, we have determined the thermally induced phase and the thermal diffusivity coefficients of two prospective nuclear reactor control rod materials, dysprosium titanate (\(\hbox {Dy}_{2}\hbox {TiO}_{5}\)) and dysprosium dititanate (\(\hbox {Dy}_{2}\hbox {Ti}_{2}\hbox {O}_{7}\)) to be \(D = (7.0 \pm 0.4) \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{m^{2}\cdot s^{-1}}\).     

Vibrating knife-edge technique for measuring the focal length of a microlens

A vibrating knife-edge technique is proposed for measuring the focal length of a microlens. The technique is based on the propagation properties of Gaussian beams. A laser beam with a Gaussian intensity profile is focused in front of the microlens under test. After being transmitted through the microlens, the beam propagates toward a detector, which consists of a photodiode that is half blocked by a knife-edge. The photodiode integrates approximately half the intensity of the transmitted beam. The knife-edge vibrates sinusoidally with small amplitude in a plane normal to the direction of propagation. Our analysis shows that the output signal at the photodiode consists of a dc component plus a temporal sinusoidal signal whose amplitude is proportional to the focal length of the microlens. After system calibration, the focal length is measured with an envelope detector or a lock-in amplifier.     

Thermal nonlinear optical response of meso-tetraphenylporphyrin under aggregation conditions versus that in the absence of aggregation

In this work, measurement of thermally induced nonlinear refractive index of meso-tetraphenylporphyrin (H₂TPP) at different concentrations in 1,2-dicoloroethane using a double-grating interferometer set-up in a pump–probe configuration is reported. The formation of aggregates of H₂TPP at concentrations greater than ca. 5 × 10^?5 M was evident by deviation from Beer’s law. An almost focused pump beam passes through the solution. A part of the pump beam energy is absorbed by the sample and therefore a thermal lens is generated in the sample. An expanded probe beam propagates through the sample and indicates the sample refractive index changes. Just after the sample a band-pass filter cuts off the pump beam from the path but the distorted probe beam passes through a double-grating interferometer consisting of two similar diffraction gratings with a few centimetres distance. A CCD camera is installed after the interferometer in which on its sensitive area two diffraction orders of the gratings are overlying and producing interference pattern. The refractive index changes of the sample are obtained from the phase distribution of the successive interference patterns recorded at different times after turning on of the pump beam using Fourier transform method. In this study, for different concentrations of H₂TPP in 1,2-dichloroethane solution the thermal nonlinear refractive index is determined. Also, we present the measurement of the temperature changes induced by the pump beam in the solution. We found that value of nonlinear refractive index increased by increasing the concentration up to a concentration of 5 × 10^?4 M and then decreased at higher concentrations. In addition, we have investigated the stability of the observed thermal nonlinearity after a period of two weeks from the sample preparation.     

Optimization of a Thermal Lens Microscope for Detection in a Microfluidic Chip

The optical configuration of a thermal lens microscope (TLM) was optimized for detection in a microfluidic chip with respect to the flow velocity, and the pump and probe beam parameters (beam waists, offsets, and mode mismatching degree). It was found that an appropriate pump–probe beam offset for a certain flow velocity would provide not only a higher sensitivity but also a better response linearity of TLM over three orders of magnitude of sample concentration. Diffraction-limited pump beam excitation is advantageous for space-resolved measurement, while a larger pump beam with 10 times lower power density is favorable for higher sensitivity at given experimental conditions. As an application, TLM was used to study the diffusion of azobenzene in a microfluidic chip. Diffusion profiles at different distances from the mixing point were recorded by scanning the TL signal along the cross section of the microchannel. By fitting the diffusion profiles to a theoretical model of mass transfer in a microchannel, diffusion coefficients of azobenzene in octane and methanol were determined to be \(5\times 10^{-10}\,\hbox {m}^{2}{\cdot }\,\hbox {s}^{-1}\) and \(6\times 10^{-10}\,\hbox {m}^{2}{\cdot }\,\hbox {s}^{-1}\) , respectively.