Fracture toughness of steels with nickel content in respect of carbide morphology

Abstract

This paper is focused on the influence of Ni addition on the microstructure and fracture toughness of structural steels after tempering. Nickel is known to increase the resistance to cleavage fracture of steel and decrease a ductile–brittle transition temperature. The medium carbon, low alloy martensitic steels attain the best combination of properties in low tempered condition, with tempered martensite, retained austenite and transition carbides in the microstructure. In the present research, four model alloys of different Ni contents (from 0·35 to 4·00%) were used. All samples were in as quenched and tempered condition. Quenching was performed in oil at room temperature. After quenching, samples were tempered at 200°C for 2?h. An increase in nickel content in the investigated model structural steels causes a decrease in ε carbide volume fraction in their microstructure. Cementite nucleates independently in the boundaries of martensite laths and in the twin boundaries in the areas where the ε carbide has been dissolved. It was stated that stress intensity factor K_Ic significantly decreases in the case of the presence of dispersive elongated cementite precipitations at the boundaries of the prior austenite grains.     

Influence of mixed mode I/III loading on fracture toughness of mild steel at various strain rates

Abstract

The effect of loading angle &phis; on the fracture toughness of mild steel at various strain rates has been studied. The fracture toughness was found to decrease with increasing loading angle (or increasing mode III component) at strain rates 10^-5 to 10⁰ s^-1 where ductile fracture was observed. Under impact conditions (strain rate 10² s^-1), fracture was by cleavage and the fracture toughness was found to increase with increasing loading angle. The results showed that the mixed mode fracture behaviour of mild steel changed from Class C in the strain rate range 10^-5 to 10⁰ s^-1 to a combination of Class A and B under impact conditions. In the strain rate range 10^-5 to 10^-2 s^-1, the fracture toughness behaviour with increasing strain rate was found to be similar for the three loading angles studied, namely &phis;= 0, &phis;= 30 and &phis;= 45°. At the strain rates 10^-2 to 10² s^-1, fracture toughness at &phis;= 0° decreased sharply, while for loading angles &phis;= 30° and &phis;= 45°, the fracture toughness increased with strain rate. The increase in mixed mode fracture toughness with strain rate in this strain rate regime has been attributed to the inertial effects which are known to reduce the T stress ahead of the crack.     

Influence of heat input on microstructure and fracture toughness property in different zones of X80 pipeline steel weldments

In this paper, microstructure observations and mechanical behaviour of fusion line and offsetting positions from fusion line by 1, 2 and 3 mm were analysed. For the welding of X80 pipeline steel plates, different magnitudes of heat inputs such as high heat input (HHI) 25 kJ/cm, medium heat input (MHI) 20 kJ/cm and low heat input (LHI) 15 kJ/cm were employed. Critical values of J‐integral (J_0.2) and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD_0.2) for predetermined regions in the X80 weldment were determined as per ASTM‐E1820a. M‐A constituents of different sizes such as small (1–2 μm), large >2 μm and slender (>4 μm) were observed in the microstructure of subzones of weldments for different heat inputs. Formation of granular bainite, M‐A constituents and inclusions of Ti, Si, Mo in the microstructure impaired fracture toughness property. In the X80 weldment, the fusion line (FL) for HHI was found weakest in terms of fracture resistance, which subsequently increases the risk of fracture.     

Computational evaluation of flexural toughness of FRC and fracture properties of plain concrete

In this paper, a computational tool concerning the computation of flexural and fracture toughness of cement based composites is presented. Firstly, RILEM’s (Réunion Internationale des Laboratoires d’Essais de Matériaux) recommendations related to the analysis of FRC in three-point bend tests are discussed in their relevant aspects regarding the computational implementations. The determination of other mechanical properties such as the Young modulus has been added to the program. Taking this into account, a new formulation based on displacements is used. In the second part of the paper, the determination of fracture properties of concrete, such as the fracture energy, G _F , and the fracture toughness, K _IC ^S , is discussed regarding the computational strategies used in the implementations. Several features whereby anterior data can be reanalyzed, obtained from other standards and recommendations, have been incorporated into the program, therefore allowing comparative studies and back analysis activities.     

INFLUENCE OF INTERMEDIATE LOADING RATES AND TEMPERATURE ON THE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF ORDINARY CARBON–MANGANESE STRUCTURAL STEELS

Three-point bend and compact tension specimens, taken from beam sections of modern and older ordinary C–Mn structural steels, were tested at intermediate loading rates at room temperature and −30 °C. The experimental work, except the loading rates used, was performed according to ASTM E-813. In order to investigate transferability of data, full-scale beam sections were also tested at intermediate loading rates. The fracture toughness of C–Mn structural steels depends strongly on the loading rate, and decreases rapidly with increasing loading rate at and just above the maximum prescribed in ASTM E-813. Fracture toughness data for structures exposed to intermediate loading rates indicate the requirement for testing at appropriate loading rates. The behaviour of full-scale structural elements subjected to intermediate loading rates can, provided certain conditions are fulfilled, be predicted from data obtained from small laboratory specimens.     

Method of constraint loss correction of CTOD fracture toughness for fracture assessment of steel components

This paper presents a procedure for transferring the CTOD fracture toughness obtained from laboratory specimens to an equivalent CTOD for structural components, taking constraint loss into account. The Weibull stress criterion is applied to correct the CTOD for constraint loss, which leads to an equivalent CTOD ratio, β, defined as β = δ/δ_WP, where δ and δ_WP are CTODs of the standard fracture toughness specimen and the structural component, respectively, at the same level of the Weibull stress. The CTOD ratio β is intended to apply to the fracture assessment of ferritic steel components to stress levels beyond small-scale yielding. Nomographs are given to determine the β-value as a function of the crack type and size in the component, the yield-to-tensile ratio of the material and the Weibull shape parameter m. Examples of the fracture assessment using β are shown within the context of a failure assessment diagram (FAD). An excessive conservatism observed in the conventional procedure is reduced reasonably by applying the equivalent CTOD ratio, β.     

Microstructure and properties of low manganese and niobium containing HIC pipeline steel

The paper describes the concept of using low manganese content in pipeline steels for hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) applications. The microstructure of thermomechanically processed pipeline steel primarily consisted of polygonal ferrite and low fraction of pearlite. The cleanliness of the steel was evident as was the absence of centerline segregation. The microstructure contained high dislocation density, sub-boundaries and dislocation substructures. Fine-scale precipitation of niobium carbides occurred on parallel array of dislocations and on random dislocations that followed [0 0 1]_NbC//[0 0 1]_α-Fe relationship with the ferrite matrix.     

Prediction of prestraining effect on fracture toughness of high strength structural steel by local approach

In the present study, the tension and fracture toughness tests on high strength structural steel of Q420 were carried out in different conditions of non-prestraining and prestraining. The results indicated that the prestrain increased the yield stress and tensile strength, but decreased the fracture toughness. Meanwhile, the local parameters m and σ_u controlling the brittle fracture were obtained using finite element method (FEM) analysis. Based on the Weibull stress fracture criterion, the prestraining effect on the fracture toughness was predicted from fracture toughness results of the virgin material by the local approach. The prediction was in good agreement with the experimental results. It certified that the critical Weibull stress obeys the two-parameter Weibull distribution in the local approach, and the fracture behaviour of the material with prestrain can be characterised well by the local approach.     

Enhanced fracture assessment under biaxial external loads using small scale cruciform bending specimens

The present study is concerned with an enhanced fracture mechanics characterization of engineering materials using small scale cruciform bending specimens. Based on the regular SE(B) specimen geometry with a shallow crack, two additional loading legs allow the application of an additional stress component acting longitudinally to the crack front. Compared to standard specimen types, the biaxial loading conditions for the cruciform specimens are in general closer to the situation in pressurized vessels and pipes, especially under thermal shock loading conditions. In a combined experimental and numerical approach, detailed assessments of the local stress and strain fields in comparison to the crack front stress and strain states of standard specimens with deep and shallow cracks are provided. The cruciform bending specimen geometry is demonstrated to be suitable even in small scale dimensions. It permits the application of different combined external loading situations and thus a fracture assessment under conditions close to various situations in engineering application. Due to its small size, the specimen geometry can be employed even if only a limited amount of material is available.     

Measuring the fracture toughness of ultra-thin films with application to AlTa coatings

An experimental technique is presented for measuring the fracture toughness of brittle thin films. In this technique, long rectangular membranes are fabricated from the film of interest using standard silicon micromachining techniques. A focused ion beam is then used to introduce pre-cracks of different lengths along the centerline of the membranes and the membranes are pressurized until rupture. The fracture stress of the membrane is measured as a function of pre-crack length and the fracture toughness of the film is determined from a simple fracture mechanics analysis. The technique is applicable to a wide range of materials and is especially suited for ultra-thin films. We have demonstrated the experimental procedure for a 150 nm AlTa intermetallic film and obtained a room-temperature fracture toughness of K _1c = 4.44 ± 0.21 MPam^1/2.     

Dynamic fracture toughness of a high strength armor steel

This paper summarizes the results of a research being carried out to determine fracture behavior both in static and dynamic conditions of high strength armor steel Armox500T. In this research, notched specimens were cut to be tested in three-point bending test. Specimens were pre-cracked by flexural fatigue. Thereafter, some specimens were tested in bending up to rupture to determine the static fracture toughness K_IC. To obtain fracture toughness in dynamic conditions, a split Hopkinson bar modified to perform three-point bending tests was used. In this device, displacements and velocities of the specimen were measured, as well as the rupture time by means of fracture detection sensors, glued to the specimens. After that, a numerical simulation of the test was performed by using LS DYNA hydrocode, obtaining stresses and strain histories around the crack tip. From these results, the stress intensity factor history was derived. By using the rupture time, measured by the sensors, the value of the fracture toughness computed was unrealistic. Therefore, the use of a numerical procedure to obtain the rupture time was decided, by comparing experimental results of velocities at the transmission bar with numerical results obtained with several rupture times. With this procedure, the computation of dynamic fracture toughness was possible. The method shows that the measurement of the dynamic fracture toughness is possible without the needs of using crack sensors or strain gauges. It can be observed that fracture toughness of this steel under static and dynamic conditions is quite similar.     

On scattering of measured values of fracture toughness parameters

The values of fracture toughness K _1C of C-Mn steels and weld metal were calculated from values of COD measured in standard specimens tested at low temperatures. The analysis of scattering of 42 values of K _1C measured in normalized C-Mn steel showed that the highest value of K _1C could be as large as 360 percent of the lowest. The factors affecting the scattering were investigated in detail and it was found that the scattering was mainly caused by the variation of locations of cleavage initiation. The local fracture stress σ was found to be the most stable parameter and combined with the minimum cleavage distance min which is determined by the triaxiality of stress reaching a critical value, it could be used to characterize the lower boundary of fracture toughness of steels. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Fatigue, monotonic and fracture toughness properties of a Cr–Mn–N steel

The low-cycle fatigue, monotonic and fracture toughness behaviour of E3949, a Cr–Mn–N austenitic stainless steel, used for drillcollar connections was studied. Low-cycle fatigue tests were carried out at room temperature under total strain control in the range of 0.40 to 1.50% using Companion Specimens Test (CST) and Incremental Step Test (IST) methods. Cyclic softening without saturation was observed in all tests. Massing cyclic stress–strain behaviour was observed only with the IST method. The fatigue life behaviour obeyed Basquin and Coffin–Manson relationships and the high value obtained for ′_f imparts a significant improvement in fatigue resistance of this alloy compared to AISI 304LN. The J–R curves and J_IC values were obtained at room temperature and at 150°C by using single specimens and the elastic compliance technique for crack length measurement. The observed decrease in crack initiation fracture toughness at 150°C is proposed to be due to a dynamic strain ageing effect, which impairs ductility.     

X70管线钢的局部脆化

研究了X70管线钢模拟热影响区的局部脆化现象和临界再热粗晶区粒状贝氏体的形成及其对韧性的影响规律.结果表明,二次峰值温度为780℃时,M-A组元在原奥氏体晶界成链状分布;二次峰值温度为840℃时,原粗晶区晶界位置生成了细晶贝氏体带,及大颗粒的M-A组元;二次峰值温度为900℃时,M A组元弥散分布,原粗晶区的奥氏体晶界消失.在二次加热过程中奥氏体主要在原粗晶区晶界形核长大.X70钢的粗晶区出现再加热脆化现象,它的脆化温度区间是一个比Ac1-Ac3更窄的温度区间,主要在T2P=Ac1-840℃温度范围内.临界再热粗晶区脆化的主要原因是在晶界上有链状分布的M-A组元.     

应力波载荷作用下X70管线钢的应力-应变行为

利用Hopkinson压杆加载装置对国产轧制态X70管线钢进行了冲击压缩实验,研究了其在高速冲击过程中的组织演变和动态应力-应变行为.结果表明:轧制态X70管线钢是以针状铁素体为主的混合组织;在ε≤2.5×103s-1条件下,铁素体板条内形成了大量的位错胞亚晶结构,随着应变率增加,针状铁素体组织显著细化,致使X70管线钢产生了明显的增强增塑现象.     

Property and microstructure evaluation as a function of processing parameters: Large HY-80 steel casting for a US Navy submarine

Processing techniques can significantly alter the properties of a material and can ultimately determine whether a component will perform its function safely. This effort involves the investigation of the processing parameters of HY-80 steel castings; specifically a large HY-80 submarine casting that failed while in service due to improper processing. Samples taken from the failed casting were evaluated in the as-received condition and after exposures to various improper quench and temper scenarios that were possible during casting production. Microstructural examination and hardness measurements were used to evaluate the condition of the high strength steel and these results were correlated to Charpy impact toughness. One important result of this work indicates that hardness alone is not a good indication of material condition: the same measured hardness values yielded very different fracture behavior. The window of favorable processing parameters as defined by heat treatment temperature was clarified based on the specification requirements set by the US Navy for HY-80 castings.     

A model for the dynamic fracture toughness of ductile structural steel

We assume in this paper that the dynamic fracture toughness K_Id of ductile structural steels is dependent on void nucleation and void growth. The void nucleation-induced dynamic fracture toughness K_Id·n and the void growth-induced dynamic fracture toughness K_Id·g were obtained by modifying the void nucleation-induced and void growth-induced static fracture toughness models, respectively, considering the effect of strain rate and local temperature. By the relationship between the void nucleation-induced dynamic fracture toughness K_Id·n and the void growth-induced dynamic fracture toughness K_Id·g((K_Id)²=(K_Id·n)²+(K_Id·g)²) dynamic fracture toughness K_Id could be quantitatively evaluated. With this model the dynamic fracture toughness of two structural steels (X65 and SA440) was assessed, and the causes for the differences between the static and dynamic fracture toughness were also discussed.     

Effect of aging treatment on fracture toughness in ZM61 magnesium alloy

The effect of aging treatment on fracture toughness in Mg–6Zn–1Mn (wt-%) was investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy, uniaxial tensile and fracture toughness tests, respectively. The results showed that the fracture toughness of Mg–6Zn–1Mn alloy can be enhanced by aging treatment. The fracture toughness and strength showed a reverse trend in single aged and double aged alloy. Synergetic effect of fine grains and precipitates improved the fracture toughness more sharply than aging treatment. The precipitate free zones and grain boundary precipitates made the largest contribution to the reduction of toughness. Under as extruded and aged conditions, the main origins of cracks were elastic incompatibility and plastic deformation.     

Fracture toughness correlation with microstructure and other mechanical properties in near-eutectoid steel

The variation of yield strength and fracture toughness was investigated for four different heat treatments attempted on specimens of a near-eutectoid steel. The aim of this study was to optimize the microstructure for simultaneous improvements in strength and toughness. Further, the fracture toughness deduced through empirical relations from tensile and charpy impact tests was compared with those measured directly according to ASTM Designation: E 399. Among the four different heat treatments attempted in this study, the plane strain condition was valid in the fracture toughness tests for (i) normalized and (ii) hardened and tempered (500°C for 1 h) treatments only. The latter of the two heat treatments resulted in simultaneous improvement of strength and plane strain fracture toughness. The finely-dispersed carbides seem to arrest the crack propagation and also increase the strength. The pearlitic microstructure of the former leads to easy crack propagation along cementite platelets and/or cementite/ferrite interfaces. The nature of variation of empirically determined toughness values from tensile tests for different heat treatments is similar to that measured directly through fracture toughness tests, although the two sets of values do not match quantitatively. On the other hand, the toughness data deduced from charpy impact test is in close agreement with that evaluated directly from fracture toughness tests.