Panel IV: Risk-taking and abusive behaviors among ethnic minorities.

The health status and health outcomes of many ethnic minorities have remained poor, or have deteriorated, despite massive health promotion campaigns. Multiple factors that encourage ethnic minorities to engage in high-risk behaviors and those that discourage health promotive behaviors must be closely examined before any health interventions are likely to be successful in decreasing substance abuse. high-risk sex, accidental deaths and injuries, and violence. Cultural and contextual factors may put some ethnic minorities in jeopardy and at higher risk for poorer health than their White counterparts (B. W. K. Yee, 1995, in press). This review article identifies contributing factors in high-risk behaviors and highlights research gaps for Americans of African. Indian, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Hispanic descent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Panel III: Behavioral risk factors related to chronic diseases in ethnic minorities.

This article reviews the evidence on 5 risk behaviors: cigarette smoking, dietary intake, being overweight, limited exercise, and alcohol consumption among African Americans, Asian/Pacific Islanders, Latinos, and Native Americans. Although there is little basis for believing that these high-risk behaviors are any less significant as contributors to chronic disease risk in any ethnic group, the limited information available, especially for Asian/Pacific Islanders and Native Americans, indicates that there may be significant within- and between-group differences in the prevalence of these behaviors. Therefore. some of the ethnic group differences in morbidity and mortality for chronic diseases are partly attributable to differences in behavioral risk profiles. Limited basic health behavior information on most ethnic minority groups delay the development of effective health promotion interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Universality of vocational interest structure among racial and ethnic minorities.

Some multicultural theory holds that it is quite possible for subgroups within the United States to have such divergent thought patterns from the White majority that mainstream psychological inventories are inappropriate measures. Differences in the circular structure of J. L. Holland's (1959, 1997) Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional vocational interests were investigated across racial and ethnic groups (African Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Caucasians; N?=?49,450), separated by sex. Three-way individual-differences scaling revealed that the 10 groups' responses reflected a markedly similar underlying structure, consistent with conventional interpretations of vocational interest patterns. The common structure of vocational interests is theoretically related to R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa's (1997) claim of personality structure as a universal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Panel VI: Ethnic minorities, health care systems, and behavior.

This article presents an overview of research on health care use and provider behavior, on doctor–patient relationships, adherence to medical regimens, self-care, practices and avoidance health care behaviors, and attitudes of 4 ethnoracial groups: African Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans, and Latinos. Although issues within the groups varied, common themes between the groups emerged. It became apparent, after discussion, that whatever the issues and health problems, these can be resolved most effectively when addressed within the social contexts of each ethnoracial group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The future of psychotherapy with ethnic minorities.

Discusses stages in the development of psychotherapy with ethnic minorities. Currently, psychotherapy with ethnic minorities is in a stage of revisionism, one which moves beyond the question of effectiveness and examines process variables such as race, ethnicity, and culture in psychotherapy. The immediate future will involve an integrative and comprehensive framework addressing the everyday reality of ethnic minority individuals. The more distant future will emphasize pluralism in diagnosis and treatment. Mainstream assumptions of normal behavior, psychological healthiness, and relationships will be infused by the norms of people of color. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological issues in assessment research with ethnic minorities.

Assessment research on ethnic minorities presents multiple methodological and conceptual challenges. This article addresses the difficulties in defining and examining ethnicity as a variable in psychological research. The authors assert that many of the problems stem from not making explicit the assumptions underlying the use of ethnicity as an explanatory variable and from inadequately describing cultural and contextual characteristics of ethnic minority samples. Also raised are common methodological problems encountered in examining race, ethnicity, and culture in assessment research, such as decisions regarding which populations to study, sampling methodologies, measure selection, method of assessment, and interpretation of results. Finally, some guidelines are offered for tackling some of the methodological dilemmas in assessment research with ethnic minorities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapeutic services for ethnic minorities: Two decades of research findings.

Considerable controversy exists over the effectiveness of psychotherapy for ethnic minority clients, especially when treated by White therapists. Some researchers and practitioners believe that ethnic clients are less likely to benefit from treatment. Others maintain the position that ethnic clients are as likely as Whites to show favorable outcomes from treatment and that ethnic or racial matching of clients and therapists is unnecessary. The available research findings fail to demonstrate that ethnic minorities achieve differential treatment outcomes, which tends to support the latter position. Explanations for the persistence of the controversy have included the lack of rigorous research on the issue and the social-political context of the controversy. This article argues that the issue has been misconceptualized. Ethnic or racial match in treatment is more of a moral/ethical concern, whereas cultural match is more of an empirical issue. Failure to differentiate between the two types of matches has prolonged an unresolvable question. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents.

Utilizing the concept of race-based traumatic stress, this study tested whether posttraumatic stress symptoms explain the process by which perceived discrimination is related to health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. One hundred ten participants were recruited from a large health maintenance organization in Northern California. Mediational analyses indicated that adolescents who perceived more discrimination reported worse posttraumatic stress symptoms, controlling for covariates. In turn, adolescents who experienced heightened posttraumatic stress symptoms reported more alcohol use, more other drug use, involvement in more fights, and more sexual partners. Perceived discrimination was also directly related to involvement in more fights. Results provide support for the notion of race-based traumatic stress, specifically, that perceived discrimination may be traumatizing for Mexican American adolescents. Counseling psychologists and counselors in schools and community settings should assess Mexican American adolescents for the effects of discrimination and provide appropriate interventions to reduce its negative emotional impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The quest for collective identity: The plight of disadvantaged ethnic minorities.

Argues that cultural difference theories, in the form of genetics, cultural deficit, and cultural discontinuity, are incomplete and misguided. A theory of "self" is proposed that focuses on collective identity as the primary psychological process, even taking precedence over self-esteem. Intergroup processes are applied to explain the problems confronting society's most disadvantaged groups. Specifically, the intergroup power differential between societal groups is explored, leading to a theory of valueless colonialism. It is the effects of valueless colonialism that leads to the destruction of collective identity for certain groups. The consequences of a poorly defined collective identity are difficulties with personal identity and self-esteem. Social problems and academic underachievement are the visible manifestations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy research with ethnic minorities: Empirical, ethical, and conceptual issues.

There is an increasing demand for psychotherapy among ethnic minority populations. Yet, there is not adequate evidence that empirically supported therapies (ESTs) are effective with ethnic minorities. Ethical guidelines suggest that psychotherapies be modified to become culturally appropriate for ethnic minority persons. Conceptual approaches have identified interdependence, spirituality, and discrimination as considerations for culturally sensitive therapy (CST). However, there is no more empirical support for the efficacy of CSTs than there is for the efficacy of ESTs with ethnic minority populations. The chasm between EST and CST research is a function of differences between methods and researchers in these 2 traditions. Specific recommendations for research collaboration between CST and EST researchers are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The electoral college exacerbates the red-blue divide and disenfranchises ethnic minorities.

Comments on the article by Seyle and Newman "A house divided? The psychology of red and blue America," (see record 2006-11202-001). Seyle and Newman argued that perceiving the American political landscape in terms of red and blue (to describe conservative and liberal perspectives, respectively) might unnecessarily pigeonhole people's dynamic social identities into one of two oversimplified categories. Their assessment of the negative psychological consequences of the red-versus-blue perspective is excellent, and their suggestion to abandon the terms red and blue in favor of their "purple America" model is laudable; however, they did not go far enough in implicating the winner-take-all policy adopted by most states in allocating their electoral college votes, which may be more directly responsible for perpetuating the red-versusblue dichotomy than the two-tone maps frequently used by the media. Seyle and Newman's suggestion to drop the red-blue metaphor is timely and noble; however, a more surefire way to hasten its demise would be to abandon the winner- take-all aspect of the Electoral College. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditional health threats: Health beliefs, decisions, and behaviors among adults.

Combined the health belief model with the theory of subjective expected utility to derive hypotheses about the relations among health beliefs and preventive decisions. The central implication of this combination of theories is the importance of conceptualizing, measuring, and communicating about health threats in ways that are clearly conditional on action. Study 1, with 33 undergraduates, examined judgments about a hypothetical preventive action to test many of the theoretically derived hypotheses. Study 2 used survey data from 618 adults in a correlational study of dental flossing behavior that tested the hypotheses as they apply to overt behavior rather than to judgment. Results of both studies support (1) the theoretical implication that the concepts of susceptibility and severity should be made conditional on action and (2) most of the hypotheses derived from the integrated model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

No real progress towards equity: health of migrants and ethnic minorities on the eve of the year 2000

The paper reviews the available evidence on access to health care and two health outcomes, perinatal mortality and accident/disability, for migrant and ethnic minorities in selected receiving industrialized countries. The health of these communities is analyzed using the entitlement approach, which considers health as the product of both the individual's private endowments and the social environment he or she faces. Migrants, especially first and second generations, and ethnic minorities often have reduced entitlements in receiving societies. Not only are they exposed to poor working and living conditions, which are per se determinants of poor health, but they also have reduced access to health care for a number of political, administrative and cultural reasons which are not necessarily present for the native population. The paper argues that the higher rates of perinatal mortality and accidents/disability observed in many migrant groups compared to the native population are linked to their lower entitlements in the receiving societies. Policies aimed at reducing such health gaps need to be accompanied by a more general effort to reduce inequalities and to promote full participation of these groups in the mainstream of society.     

Panel I: Epidemiology of minority health.

Collecting epidemiologic data by ethnicity and race is a highly useful undertaking; but "benchmark" comparisons relative to majority Americans should not take priority over defining the determinants of health status within a minority group. Thus, it is necessary to identify factors contributing to the measured health status and to modify the environment, lifestyles, and behaviors to diminish the likelihood of undesirable health outcomes. This article presents an overview of the health status of African Americans, Asians and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics. The goals are to provide a framework for the rational interpretation of both health status data and its determinants both within and between minority groups. This approach recognizes the heterogeneity of health status that exists within a minority group and encourages investigators to place more emphasis on the within-group health status differentials as they search for modifiable factors that underlie the risk for undesirable health outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training in counseling ethnic minorities and race-based availability of graduate school resources.

Psychology interns were surveyed concerning their perceptions of training received on ethnic minority issues and the availability of resources during graduate training. Respondents reported mediocre preparation for counseling ethnic minority clients. Few had courses on counseling ethnic minorities and these issues were not incorporated into most core courses. The majority reported both encouragement to examine their biases regarding ethnicity (as defined by J. M. Casas, 1984) and the presence of experts in these issues during training. A few program type and internship setting differences were found. In terms of resources, both White students and students of other races reported having support for their dissertations and access to role models and mentors, with a few differences emerging in source of mentoring. Differences in funding between White students and students of other races were also identified. Implications for training programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Referral patterns in ethnic-specific and mainstream programs for ethnic minorities and Whites.

The present study examined the referral patterns of 1,095 African, 2,168 Asian, 1,385 Hispanic, and 2,273 White Americans (18 years of age and older) in a public mental health system to determine whether group differences in help-seeking and referral patterns were related to participation in ethnic-specific versus mainstream programs. Results indicated that (a) ethnic minorities in both mainstream and ethnic-specific programs were more likely than Whites to have been referred by natural help-giving and lay referral sources (e.g., family or friends, health services, and social services) and (b) ethnic minorities in ethnic-specific programs were more likely than ethnic minorities in mainstream programs to have been referred by natural help-giving and lay referral sources if they were Asian and Hispanic Americans and self-referred if they were African Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examination of psychological distress in ethnic minorities from a learned helplessness framework.

Outlines L. Y. Abramson and colleague's (see record 1979-00305-001) reformulated model of learned helplessness, in which behavioral deficits result from a noncontingency between response and outcome. The helplessness sequence is illustrated in a case of a 55-yr-old Black male whose deficits were attributed to events involving racial discrimination. Locus of control and attributional styles are discussed in the context of minority mental health issues. An attributional style grid is proposed as a way in which the clinician can identify appropriate clinical and community interventions on the basis of the particular salient attributions operating for the patient. In this grid, problems such as a patient's lack of skills, employer prejudice, or the state of the economy are classified as being global or specific, stable or unstable, and internal or external. The value of cognitive therapy, exposure to a controlling type of experience, remediation of specific skills deficits, and social advocacy are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of alcohol use to other health behaviors among college students.

The present study examined whether high levels of drinking are negatively associated with the likelihood of engaging in health-enhancing behaviors and positively associated with the likelihood of engaging in health-compromising behaviors. It was hypothesized that higher levels of drinking would be associated with more negative indicators of psychological health. Health behaviors of 183 college freshmen were assessed with the Computerized Lifestyles Assessment and the Brief Symptom Inventory. Consistent with prior research, results indicated a significant positive linear trend across abstainers, light-moderate drinkers, episodic drinkers, and heavy drinkers in reports of cigarette use, other drug use, and sexual activity. However, a comparison of other health areas, including psychological health, indicated no significant trends. Implications for substance abuse prevention programs and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of acculturation: Associations with health risk behaviors among college students from immigrant families.

In the present study, we examined a bidimensional model of acculturation (which includes both heritage and U.S. practices, values, and identifications) in relation to hazardous alcohol use, illicit drug use, unsafe sexual behavior, and impaired driving. A sample of 3,251 first- and second-generation immigrant students from 30 U.S. colleges and universities completed measures of behavioral acculturation; cultural values (individualism, collectivism, and self-construal); ethnic and U.S. identity; and patterns of alcohol and drug use, engagement in potentially unsafe sexual activities, and driving while (or riding with a driver who was) intoxicated. Results indicate that heritage practices and collectivist values were generally protective against health risk behaviors, with collectivist values most strongly and consistently protective. Nonetheless, heritage identifications were positively associated with sexual risk taking for Hispanics. U.S. practices, values, and identifications were not consistently related to risk behavior participation. Results are discussed in terms of bidimensional approaches to acculturation, the immigrant paradox, and implications for counseling practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of health protective behaviors among college students

This study uses structural equation modeling and a panel design to explain participation in health protective behavior (HPB) among college students. The direct, indirect, and total effects of gender, social influences (parental and peer behavior), social attachments (activity involvement, social support, and romantic involvement), social triggers (personal health, acute illnesses, and personal or family health crisis), health value, and effort to improve health behavior on HPB are examined. A path model with a high goodness of fit and an R2 of .418 shows that gender; health value, and effort to change health behaviors are the most powerful predictors of HPB participation, while parents and peers influence HPB indirectly through influence on health value and effort to change. Neither the social attachment nor social trigger items influenced HPB in this sample. Implications of these findings are discussed.