Evaluation of microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir welded lap joints of Inconel 600/SS 400

The microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir welded Inconel 600 and SS 400 lap joints were evaluated in this study. Friction stir welding was carried out at a tool rotation speed of 200 rpm and a welding speed of 100 mm/min. Application of friction stir welding was notably effective in reducing the grain size of the stir zone, as a result, the average grain size of Inconel 600 was reduced from 20 μm in the base material to 8.5 μm in the stir zone. The joint interface between Inconel 600 and SS 400 was soundly welded without voids and cracks, and MC carbides with a size of 50 nm were partially formed in the region of the lap joint interface in Inconel 600. In addition, a hook from SS 400 was formed on the advancing side of the Inconel 600 alloy, which directly affected an increase in the peel strength of the weld. In this study, we systematically discussed the effect of friction stir welding on the evolution of the microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir lap jointed Inconel 600 and SS 400.     

Challenges in dissimilar friction stir welding of aluminum 5052 and 304 stainless steel alloys

In this study, dissimilar friction stir welding of aluminum 5052 and stainless steel 304 has been carried out with different process parameters. This investigation provides a better insight regarding the defect formation of the weld joints with tilt angles ranging from 0 ° to 2.5 °. The experiments were conducted according to Taguchi L9 orthogonal array by changing the tool rotational speed, and welding speed. The tool pin was kept 70 % towards the aluminum with the tool rotational speed ranging from 800 min⁻¹ to 1200 min⁻¹ with a varying traverse speed of 5 mm/min to 15 mm/min. The bottom part of the stir zone was perfectly welded without any defects. Tunnel defect was detected just above the bottom welded surface. Microstructural analysis reveals that the weld between both materials is formed on the retreating side, whereas on the advancing side, the weld was formed with void defects. Mostly, the stir zone is filled with irregular shaped aluminum and steel parts which were detached from the base material. Several other defects such as voids, cracks, and fragmental defects were observed in the stir zone irrespective of the process parameters. It was observed from the experimental investigations that the tunnel defect can be reduced by increasing the tilt angle.     

Effect of welding speed on microstructures and mechanical properties of underwater friction stir welded 2219 aluminum alloy

Underwater friction stir welding (underwater FSW) has been demonstrated to be available for the strength improvement of normal FSW joints. In the present study, a 2219 aluminum alloy was underwater friction stir welded at a fixed rotation speed of 800 rpm and various welding speeds ranging from 50 to 200 mm/min in order to clarify the effect of welding speed on the performance of underwater friction stir welded joint. The results revealed that the precipitate deterioration in the thermal mechanically affected zone and the heat affected zone is weakened with the increase of welding speed, leading to a narrowing of softening region and an increase in lowest hardness value. Tensile strength firstly increases with the welding speed but dramatically decreases at the welding speed of 200 mm/min owing to the occurrence of groove defect. During tensile test, the joint welded at a lower welding speed is fractured in the heat affected zone on the retreating side. While at higher welding speed, the defect-free joint is fractured in the thermal mechanically affected zone on the advancing side.     

Joint properties of friction stir welded AZ31B– H24 magnesium alloy

Abstract

The weldability of friction stir welded hot rolled AZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy sheet, 4 mm in thickness, was evaluated, varying welding parameters such as tool rotation speed and travel welding speed. Sound welding conditions depended mainly on sufficient heat input during the welding process. Insufficient heat input, which was generated in the case of higher travel speed and lower rotation speed, caused an inner void or lack of bonding in the stir zone. The microstructure of the weld zone was composed of five regions: base metal, heat affected zone, thermomechanically affected zone, stir zone I and stir zone II. Unlike the general feature of friction stir welded aluminium alloys, the grain size of the weld zone was larger than that of the base metal. Stir zones I and II were characterised by partial dynamic recrystallisation and full dynamic recrystallisation, respectively. The hardness of the weld zone was lower than that of the base metal owing to grain growth. A wider range of defect free welding conditions was acquired at higher tool rotation speed and lower welding speed. The maximum tensile strengh was 240 MPa, which was ~85% of the base metal value of 293 MPa. The fracture location was close to the stir zone.     

焊接速度对 7A52 铝合金 FSW 组织及力学性能的影响

目的在保证搅拌速度一定时,针对8 mm厚的7A52铝合金,在不同焊接速度下采用搅拌摩擦焊(FSW)进行焊接试验,研究其焊接接头的显微组织及力学性能。方法利用搅拌摩擦焊机进行对接焊接,焊后制取金相试样观察焊接接头宏观形貌和显微组织,并测定其力学性能。结果7A52铝合金FSW焊接接头焊核区的面积随着焊接速度的增大而增大,当焊接速度为250mm/min时,焊接接头的焊核区面积最大,焊核区的显微组织都为细小的等轴晶,焊接接头横截面的焊核区呈明显"洋葱环"的形貌,而热力影响区的结构特征则呈现出了较高的塑性变形流线层。焊接接头显微硬度分布都呈现出"W"形变化,在焊接速度为150 mm/min时,焊接接头的平均抗拉强度能达到452 MPa,达到了母材抗拉强度的89%。结论通过对不同焊接速度下7A52铝合金FSW焊接接头的组织和性能进行研究,得到了不同焊接速度下焊接接头组织和力学性能。     

Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of friction stir welded joints of Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy

The α + β titanium alloy, Ti–6Al–4V, was friction stir welded at a constant tool rotation speed of 400 rpm. Defect-free welds were successfully obtained with welding speeds ranging from 25 to 100 mm/min. The base material was mill annealed with an initial microstructure composed of elongated primary α and transformed β. A bimodal microstructure was developed in the stir zone during friction stir welding, while microstructure in the heat affected zone was almost not changed compared with that in the base material. An increase in welding speed increased the size of primary α in the stir zone. The weld exhibited lower hardness than the base material and the lowest hardness was found in the stir zone. Results of transverse tensile test indicated that all the joints had lower strength and elongation than the base material, and all the joints were fractured in the stir zone.     

镁合金高转速搅拌摩擦焊工艺研究

目的 研究镁合金高转速搅拌摩擦焊工艺及其对组织与性能的影响规律。方法 采用光学显微镜观察以及拉伸性能测试等方法,探索了1.5 mm厚AZ31B镁合金高转速搅拌摩擦焊接工艺,对其接头组织与力学性能进行了测试分析。结果 采用6000 r/min转速时,随着焊速从600 mm/min降低至100 mm/min,焊接接头隧道型孔洞缺陷消失;采用600 mm/min焊速时,2000~4000 r/min转速范围内可获得无缺陷的接头。拉伸测试结果表明,6000 r/min-100 mm/min焊接工艺下接头的拉伸性能最优,抗拉强度为235.33 MPa,为母材强度的87.92%。结论 镁合金采用高转速搅拌摩擦工艺可获得无缺陷的焊接接头,且采用高转速匹配低焊速的工艺可使接头的拉伸性能得到提升。     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 18Cr–2Mo ferritic stainless steel thick plate

In this study, microstructure and mechanical properties of a friction stir welded 18Cr–2Mo ferritic stainless steel thick plate were investigated. The 5.4 mm thick plates with excellent properties were welded at a constant rotational speed and a changeable welding speed using a composite tool featuring a chosen volume fraction of cubic boron nitride (cBN) in a W–Re matrix. The high-quality welds were successfully produced with optimised welding parameters, and studied by means of optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and standard hardness and impact toughness testing. The results show that microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints are affected greatly, which is mainly related to the remarkably fine-grained microstructure of equiaxed ferrite that is observed in the friction stir welded joint. Meanwhile, the ratios of low-angle grain boundary in the stir zone regions significantly increase, and the texture turns strong. Compared with the base material, mechanical properties of the joint are maintained in a comparatively high level.     

7075铝合金高速搅拌摩擦焊材料流动行为及性能研究

目的 针对7075–O铝合金高焊速、高转速搅拌摩擦焊接缺陷多、质量差等问题,研究焊接接头材料流动对焊缝性能的影响。方法 选用焊接速度1 000 mm/min,搅拌转速分别为1 000、1 200、1 600、1 700 r/min的条件对7075–O铝合金板进行搅拌摩擦焊接,分析不同焊接工艺参数下焊接接头的显微组织及力学性能。同时,利用Fluent软件模拟7075–O铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接过程中的材料流动场分布,分析焊接材料流动与缺陷形成的关系。结果 利用7075–O铝合金三维流动模型,预测出高焊速条件下焊缝前进侧形成一个低压区,孔洞等缺陷易出现在此区域,数值模拟预测与试验结果吻合。在高焊接速度1 000 mm/min、焊接转速1 200 r/min时,焊缝表面光滑平整,焊核区域的硬度分布更加均匀。结论 随着搅拌转速从1 000 r/min增大到1 700 r/min,热输入量逐渐增大,孔洞缺陷由隧道型孔洞转变为不连续的小孔。同时,随着搅拌转速的增大,焊缝高硬度区域的宽度先增大而后降低。当搅拌转速为1 200 r/min时得到了优质的焊接接头,焊缝焊核区硬度分布均匀,硬度值最高为176HV。     

Formation and mechanical properties of stationary shoulder friction stir welded 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy

6005A-T6 aluminum alloy is welded by stationary shoulder friction stir welding (SSFSW). At a constant rotational velocity of 2000 rpm, the effect of welding speed on mechanical properties of SSFSW joint are investigated in detail. Defect-free joint with gloss surface and small flash is attained and no cracks appear at the bending angle of 180°. Compared with traditional friction stir welding (FSW), width of rotational shoulder affected zone is relatively small because of the smaller diameter of rotational shoulder. Increasing welding speed is benefit for reducing the width of softening region and the softening degree. The fracture position of welding joint locates in thermo-mechanically affected zone and the fracture surface morphology presents the typical ductile fracture. The maximum tensile strength of joint at the welding speed of 400 mm/min reaches 82% of base metal (BM).     

Effect of precipitation on post-heat-treated Inconel 625 alloy after friction stir welding

This study evaluated the mechanical properties of friction stir welded and post-heat-treated Inconel 625 alloy. Friction stir welding (FSW) was performed at rotation and traveling speeds of 200 rpm and 100 mm/min, respectively; heat treatment was carried out after welding at 700 °C for 100 h in vacuum. As a result, the application of FSW on Inconel 625 alloy led to the grain refinement in the stir zone, which resulted in increase in mechanical properties than those of the base material. Especially, applying heat treatment after FSW led to the improvement of mechanical properties of the welds; microhardness and tensile strength increased by more than 30% and 50%, respectively, as compared to FSW alone.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded copper

The main objective of this investigation was to apply friction stir welding technique (FSW) for joining of 2 mm thick copper sheet. The defect free weld was obtained at a tool rotational and travel speed of 1,000 rpm and 30 mm/min, respectively. Mechanical and microstructural analysis has been performed to evaluate the characteristics of friction stir welded copper. The microstructure of the weld nugget (WN) consists of fine equiaxed grains. Similarly, the elongated grains in the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and coarse grains in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) were observed. The hardness values in the WN were higher than the base material. Eventually HAZ shows lowest hardness values because of few coarse grains presence. Friction stir welded copper joints passes 85% weld efficiency as compared to the parent metal.     

Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of non-combustive Mg–9Al–Zn–Ca magnesium alloy friction stir welded joints

Non-combustive Mg–9Al–Zn–Ca magnesium alloy was friction stir welded with rotation speeds ranging from 500 to 1250 rpm at a constant welding speed of 200 mm/min. Defect-free joints were successfully produced at rotation speeds of 750 and 1000 rpm. The as-received hot extruded material consisted of equiaxed α-Mg grains with β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ and Al₂Ca compounds distributed along the grain boundaries. Friction stir welding produced much refined α-Mg grains accompanied by the dissolution of the eutectic β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ phase, while Al₂Ca phase was dispersed homogeneously into the Mg matrix. An increase in rotation speed increased the α-Mg grain size but not significantly, while microstructure in the heat affected zone was almost not changed compared with the base material. The hardness tests showed uniform distributed and slightly increased harness in the stir zone. Results of transverse tensile tests indicated that the defect-free joints fractured at the base material, while longitudinal tensile tests showed that the strength of the defect-free welds was improved due to microstructural refinement and uniform distribution of intermetallic compounds.     

汽车轮辋用钢搅拌摩擦焊接头组织及力学性能

目的 为搅拌摩擦焊在轮辋钢的应用提供理论数据。方法 选用厚度为4.5 mm的江铃汽车V362轮辋钢板B380CL,采用不同的焊接参数,获得搅拌摩擦焊接头,对焊缝宏观成形及微观组织进行分析,研究焊接参数对组织的影响;通过进行拉伸试验和硬度测试,分析焊接参数对焊接接头性能的影响;对接头焊缝进行X-Ray无损探伤。结果 当搅拌头旋转速度为950 r/min,焊接速度分别为37.5, 47.5, 60 mm/min时,均能形成焊接接头。焊接速度为47.5 mm/min时,焊缝宏观成形较好,微观组织无缺陷,微观组织为铁素体和珠光体,抗拉强度最高,超过母材;焊接接头各区域微观组织硬度较母材高,伸长率较焊接速度为37.5 mm/min时的接头高。结论 搅拌摩擦焊实现轮辋钢的对接,该研究中旋转速度950 r/min,焊接速度47.5 mm/min为最佳工艺参数,接头抗拉强度超过母材。     

Evaluation of the microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6005 aluminum alloy

Abstract

The microstructural change related with the hardness profile has been evaluated for friction stir welded, age hardenable 6005 Al alloy. Frictional heat and plastic flow during friction stir welding created fine and equiaxed grains in the stir zone (SZ), and elongated and recovered grains in the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ). The heat affected zone (HAZ), identified only by the hardness result because there is no difference in grain structure compared to the base metal, was formed beside the weld zone. A softened region was formed near the weld zone during the friction stir welding process. The softened region was characterised by the dissolution and coarsening of the strengthening precipitate during friction stir welding. Sound joints in 6005 Al alloys were successfully formed under a wide range of friction stir welding conditions. The maximum tensile strength, obtained at 507 mm min^-1 welding speed and 1600 rev min^-1 tool rotation speed, was 220 MPa, which was 85% of the strength of the base metal.     

水下搅拌摩擦焊对铝/铜接头组织与性能的影响

目的 采用搅拌摩擦焊,对比分析大气环境和水下环境下铝/铜接头的组织与性能,以期获得力学性能更优异的铝/铜焊接接头。方法 利用搅拌摩擦焊,在焊接速度为40 mm/min、旋转速度为1 000 r/min的条件下,分别在大气环境和水下环境下对厚度为9 mm的6061铝合金板和T2纯铜板进行焊接。然后,对铝/铜界面、焊核区进行扫描电镜及能谱分析,并对铝/铜界面及焊核区进行物相分析,确定产物相组成。最后,对铝/铜试样进行拉伸及硬度检测。结果 铝/铜接头均无裂纹、气孔等缺陷。铜颗粒弥散分布在焊核区,铝/铜界面形成金属间化合物层。水下搅拌摩擦焊下界面元素扩散距离明显变短,且金属间化合物厚度更薄。铝/铜接头的金属间化合物为AlCu和Al4Cu9。大气环境焊接下接头的抗拉强度为130.6 MPa,断裂方式为脆性断裂;水下焊接下接头的抗拉强度为199.5 MPa,断裂方式为韧性断裂。水下环境下的接头硬度值更高,其中热影响区的硬度最低值约为65HV。结论 水下搅拌摩擦焊铝/铜接头无裂纹、气孔等缺陷。组织上,水下搅拌摩擦焊的铝/铜接头界面元素扩散距离更短,硬脆的金属间化合物更少;性能上,水下搅拌摩擦焊的铝/铜接头强度更高,抗拉强度达到199.5 MPa,达到母材的74.4%。     

Identification of the pin offset effect on the friction stir welding (FSW) via Taguchi – Grey relational analysis: A Case study for AA 7075 – AA 6013 alloys

The aim of this work is to present a case study relating to the dissimilar friction stir welding (FSW) ability of AA 7075‐T651 and AA 6013‐T6 by applying pin offset technique. An orthogonal array L18 was conducted to perform the overlapped weld seams using three different values of pin offset, welding speed and tool rotational speed along with two different pin profiles determine the impact of welding parameters on the tensile properties of friction stir welded joints. The nugget zone for each of overlapped weld seams exhibited a complex structure and also, the pin offset and profile also were found to have a great impact on the microstructural evolution of the nugget zone. The ultimate tensile strength, elongation at the rapture and bending strength of welded joints were measured in the ranges of 194–215 MPa, 1.79–3.34 % and 203–352 MPa. From the Taguchi based Grey relational analysis, the optimum welding condition was determined for the welded joint performed using a single fluted pin profile with the zero pin offset, tool rotational speed of 630 min^?1 and welding speed of 63 mm/min. Microstructural and macro‐structural observations revealed that welded joints exhibiting lower tensile strength are consistent of various types of defects (e. g. cracks, tunnels and cavities). The fracture location of welded joints was found to be on the heat affected zone and between the heat affected zone and AA 6013‐base metal. The tool and pin wear was not observed during the welding applications     

The time–temperature–corrosion susceptibility in a 7050-T7451 friction stir weld

The temperature gradient occurring for a short time during friction stir welding greatly affects the localized corrosion properties of welded 7050-T7451 plates. An immersion experiment in a salty solution was carried out in order to verify the influence of short-term post-weld heat treatments at temperatures similar to those taking place during friction stir welding on the corrosion behaviour of friction stir welded 7050-T7451. The experiment consisted of inserting thermocouples at different weld regions for the registration of the temperature development with time, and partially immersing the welded plate in a salty solution at 480 °C. In this manner, the weld experienced different temperature expositions at different locations. It was found that a temperature exposition above 180 °C for 20 min significantly increases the general corrosion resistance of friction stir welded 7050-T7451. The re-exposition of 7050-T7451 friction stir weld to a time–temperature combination similar to that occurring during the welding process on the thermomechanically heat affected zones of the weld, significantly improves the corrosion properties and the environmental cracking resistance. After the short-term temperature exposition, the fracture location of samples tested in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution moved from the corrosion susceptible thermomechanically affected zone to the heat affected zone.     

Effect of rotation speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–4V friction stir welded joints

The effect of tool rotation speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded joints was investigated for Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy. Joints were produced by employing rotation speeds ranging from 400 to 600 rpm at a constant welding speed of 75 mm/min. It was found that rotation speed had a significant impact on microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints. A bimodal microstructure or a full lamellar microstructure could be developed in the weld zone depending on the rotation speeds used, while the microstructure in the heat affected zone was almost not influenced by rotation speed. The hardness in the weld zone was lower than that in the base material, and decreased with increasing rotation speed. Results of transverse tensile test indicated that all the joints exhibited lower tensile strength than the base material and the tensile strength of the joints decreased with increasing rotation speed.     

Effects of friction stir welding on microstructure and mechanical properties of extruded secondary aluminum 6061 alloy

Experiments were carried out to determine the effects of friction stir welding on microstructure and properties of recycled Aluminum 6061 alloy, whose alloy content varied from that of primary alloy. The alloy was processed at tool speed and feed ranges of 530 rev/min–1320 rev/min and 40 mm/min–100 mm/min respectively. Microstructure examination; tensile test and Vickers microhardness evaluation were carried out. Microstructure of the alloy was in four zones including: base metal, heat affected zone, thermo-mechanically affected zone and stirred zone. Average grain size of unprocessed material was 93 μm. Processing the alloy at 530 rev/min and 100 mm/min resulted in grains of average size 93 μm, 183 μm and 7 μm; in base metal, heat affected zone and stirred zone respectively. Tensile failure occurred in heat affected zone; that was exposed to high heat. The alloy hardness decreased to a minimum in heat affected zone, followed by a brief rise in thermo-mechanically affected zone, to another maximum in stirred zone. Processed zone hardness was inversely proportional to tool speed and directly proportional to feed rate. Increase in the speed and decrease in feed, increased heat which deteriorated the properties.