Effect of Corn Flour, Salt, and Leavening on the Texture of Fried, Battered Squid Rings

ABSTRACT: The effect of the addition of corn flour and salt on the textural properties of a commercial dry-mix batter used as coating in fried, battered squid rings was studied. Although salt-containing formulations had significantly lower viscosity values than the other samples, the batter pickup values were not significantly different. The crispness of the fried, battered squid rings was measured. The peak force of penetration, slope of the curve, and area up to the peak force did not show big differences, except the values for the formulation that contained leavening agent. In this case, the force value was significantly lower than the rest and the penetrometry profile was also different, corresponding to a crispy product. Finally, the influence on crispness of time lapsed after frying was also studied.     

Effect of batter formulation on lipid uptake during frying and lipid fraction of frozen battered squid

The present paper studies the influence that batter ingredients (wheat flour, corn flour, salt and leavening agent) have on fat content and oxidative degradation of the lipid fraction of deep-fried frozen battered squid. The use of a leavening agent significantly increases the fat content during frying; the generation of gas cells where oil easily lodges is the most important event observed by scanning electron microscopy when this additive is used in the formulation. The addition of salt in the formulation also increases fat content, but replacement of wheat flour by corn flour decreases significantly the oil content of the battered squids. The acidity index values indicate a relatively low degree of hydrolysis for all the batters studied. The batter formulation influences the degree of oxidation of the lipid fraction of the deep-fried products; the battered product with leavening in its formulation shows a lesser oxidation (P<0.05), which might be connected with the high absorption of oil during deep fat frying.     

Effects of cross-linked tapioca starches on batter viscosity and oil absorption in deep-fried breaded chicken strips

In this study, the effectiveness and feasibility of using various degrees of cross-linked tapioca starches in batter and breading formulations to reduce oil absorptions in deep fried chickens were investigated. Shear flow behaviour, water retention capacity (WRC), pick-up as well as cooked yield of the prepared batters were also examined. Flow curves showed that all studied batters were pseudoplastic, i.e. having shear thinning characteristics. In addition, it was found that the substitution of 20% (w/w) cross-linked starches for wheat flour in the batter formulation significantly reduced the consistency index and WRC of the batters. However, batter pick-up and cooked yield values were insignificantly affected. Oil uptake of fried chicken crusts was determined using differential scanning calorimetry due to its specific advantages over the conventional solvent extraction method. In comparison to the control (wheat) formulation, crusts of fried chicken samples obtained from the formulations containing 20% (w/w) cross-linked starch showed significantly lower oil content by at least 17% relative oil reduction. The highest relative oil reduction was found in the batter containing the highly cross-linked tapioca starch. Furthermore, an increase in water content in the batter formulations resulted in a reduction in the batter pick-up, cooked yield and oil absorption. The degree of cross-linking which in turn resulted in the limited starch granule disintegration is the predominant factor in the reduction of oil content for deep-fried battered food.     

玉米淀粉对油炸外裹糊鱼块品质的影响

本实验将添加玉米淀粉的外裹糊鱼块深度油炸,考察面粉与玉米淀粉在不同配比下油炸外裹糊鱼块的感官、油脂和水分含量,裹糊率、质构、色泽、微观结构、油脂吸收和分布等品质特性,筛选出较佳的面粉和玉米淀粉质量比例）。结果表明：m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,油炸外裹糊鱼块外壳和内部鱼块的油脂含量分别为22.36%和2.23%,水分含量分别为36.89%和70.19%;油炸外裹糊鱼块的裹糊率为28.10%,且外裹糊黏稠度适中;油炸外裹糊鱼块的L*、a*、b*值分别为60.18、3.15、27.32,外壳咀嚼度为2.64 kg和内部鱼块的弹性为0.92 cm,具有较高的感官评分。扫描电子显微镜（scanning electron microscope,SEM）分析显示,m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）不同,油炸外裹糊鱼块的结构和气孔差异较大。当m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,外壳的结构紧密、有少量的气孔出现,内部鱼块的气孔分布相对均匀。苏丹红染色实验显示染色幅度随着面粉与玉米淀粉质量比的增加呈现先降低后增加的趋势,染色油通过水分蒸发形成的孔隙进入到鱼块内部。m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,苏丹红染色幅度较小,内部鱼块中气孔较少。说明玉米淀粉显著影响油炸外裹糊鱼块的品质。     

Effect of the addition of corn flour and colorants on the colour of fried, battered squid rings

The effect that the addition of corn flour and colorants to batter doughs has on the final colour of fried squid rings was studied. As the quantity of corn flour increased, the values of the parameters a* (redness), YI (yellowness index) and (E* (total colour difference) increased. The samples that had been prefried and frozen before final frying showed a more brownish colour, probably due to dehydration effects. The addition of tartrazine and riboflavin to the batter dough in order to give initial colour to the frozen, prefried product produced a slight increase in the values of all the colour parameters studied in the final fried products.     

Performance of three different types of resistant starch in fried battered food

Three different types of commercially available RS (one RS type 2 and two RS type 3) were incorporated in a batter formula and their influence on the rheological properties of the raw batter and on the batter pick-up, texture, colour, and consumer acceptability of the final battered fried product were investigated. RS incorporation affected the rheological properties of the raw batter compared with a control (without RS), although no relation between RS type and the flow and viscoelastic properties was found. In comparison to the control batter, replacement of wheat flour with Novelose 330 (RS3 type) increased significantly batter consistency and the values of the viscoelastic moduli G′ and G″, while replacement with both C*Actistar 11700 (RS3 type) or Hi-maize 260 (RS2 type) produced the opposite effect. Instrumental colour was the only property that gave a clear relationship with the type of RS; the two RS3 starches developed a darker colour than the control and the RS2 starch. The RS2 starch showed the best acceptability evaluated by a consumer panel. All the RS types assayed are considered successful to be used in battered food.     

Acceptability of batter-coated squid rings prepared without industrial pre-frying

A panel of 50 consumers was recruited to study the sensory acceptability of batter-coated squid rings prepared by an innovative method that eliminates the pre-frying step through the addition of a cellulose derivative and, compared with traditional batter-coated squid rings, reduces oil absorption during the final frying stage. Three tasting sessions were used to study the effect of providing nutritional information (fat content), before or after a familiarisation period of 7 days home use, on the assessment of appearance, crispness, batter thickness, taste and global product acceptance. The results indicate that, in general, scores for the innovative low-fat product rose after the familiarisation period. Nutritional information provided before the familiarisation period did not give rise to significant differences in the rating of the innovative batter-coated squid rings.     

PASTING CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE FLOUR-BASED BATTER COMPARED TO WHEAT FLOUR-BASED BATTER

Rice flour‐based batter (RFBB) formulations were developed for deep fat fried chickendrumstick application. The effects of ingredients on pasting characteristics of RFBB and wheat flour based‐batter (WFBB) were compared using the Rapid Visco‐Analyzer (RVA). Pasting properties were influenced significantly by ratios of rice to corn flour, oxidized corn starch, and methylcellulose. The peak viscosity, breakdown, and setback increased significantly as rice flour level increased, whereas increasing levels of oxidized corn starchyielded opposite results. Pasting characteristics of RFBB were significantly different from those of WFBB.     

Functionality of batters containing different starch types for deep-fat frying of chicken nuggets

The effect of various starch types (amylomaize, corn, waxymaize, pregelatinized tapioca) on quality attributes (texture, moisture content, oil content, color, coating pick up, cooking yield, volume and porosity) of deep-fat fried chicken nuggets were studied. Chicken samples, 0.04 m in diameter and 0.015 m in thickness, taken from the breast portion, were coated with batters composed of a 3:5 solid to water ratio by immersion. The solid content of batter formulations contained equal amounts of corn and wheat flour, 5.0% starch, 1.0% salt and 0.5% leavening agent. As control, batter without starch addition, was used. Samples were fried at 180°C for 3, 6, 9 and 12 minutes. Crispness and oil content of chicken nuggets increased, whereas moisture content decreased with increasing frying time. Starch addition to the formulations increased crispness of the product significantly at the last stages of frying. The highest porosity and oil content was obtained when corn starch was used. Pregelatinized tapioca starch was found to provide a product with the lowest oil content, the highest moisture content, coating pick up and volume.     

Cross-linking of wheat starch improves the crispness of deep-fried battered food

Wheat starches with different degrees of cross-linking were used to study the effect of starch gelatinization in the batter and crust characteristics of deep-fried battered food. Pasting properties, viscosity and batter pick up as well as moisture and oil content and crispness of the fried crusts were evaluated. In batters prepared with a constant solids/water ratio, the cross-linked starches increased batter viscosity and consequently the batter pick up. Batters, with comparable viscosity were prepared by varying the solid/water ratio which gave the same batter pick up.The pasting properties of cross-linked starches showed that the higher the cross-linking the more resistant was the starch to gelatinization and granule disintegration. In batters with a constant solids/water ratio, batter with high cross-linked starch had more water loss during frying. Cross-linked starches had lower moisture content after storage and less oil was retained after frying. Crispness, measured instrumentally as sound intensity, was the highest for the high cross-linked starch at 1 and 20 min after frying.Batters prepared with the same viscosity were used to study the effect of cross-linked starches when the pick up was the same. To obtain comparable viscosities between the batters, the batter with native starch was prepared using the lowest mixing water content and the one with high cross-linked starch with the highest. The batter with the high cross-linked starch, although it had the highest addition of water, had the best crispness after frying.In conclusion, high cross-linking of wheat starch enhances crispness perception of deep-fried battered food.     

Oil Binding Ability of Chlorinated and Heated Wheat Starch Granules and Their Use in Breadmaking and Pancake Baking

Chlorination and heat treatment of wheat flour changes the surface character of starch granules from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, and high oil binding ability of the starch granules can be observed. It was suggested that the hydrophobicity, in case of chlorination, was due to chemical modification of the starch granule surface proteins, and, in case of heat treatment, due to conformational changes of the proteins. This hydrophobicity could be also obtained by aging (233 days at room temperature). The hydrophobicity of starch granules in batter is highly related to the springiness of pancake. Heat treated wheat starch granules can encapsulate flavor through their oil binding ability.     

Wheat batter physical properties as influenced by starch/flour types and egg contents

Batter liquid–solid phase interactions can play a critical role in determining the functionality, including adherence, appearance and texture of end use coated product. Batter chemical composition is a key factor affecting batter characteristics. The effect of substituting wheat flour with fractions of rice flour, native corn starch, modified waxy corn starch, tapioca starch and lupine flour ranging from 26 to 56% of the solid phase and egg levels ranging from 6 to 35% of the liquid phase on the rheological properties of batter systems was studied. Results indicated that lupine flour had the greatest water holding capacity (WHC) ranging from 93.9 to 119.3% of various lupine flour percent to egg levels used. Flow behaviour index of batter flour treatments ranged from 0.91 to 1.87; values that were significantly (P?<?0.05) greater than a 100% control wheat flour. Consistency coefficient of treatments ranged from 0.01 to 0.37 mPa sⁿ; values that were significantly lower than wheat flour (i.e., 5 mPa sⁿ). Egg level used in this study had minimal effect on treatment rheological properties. The changes in WHC and viscoelastic properties of treatments were attributed to changes in protein and fibre contents and structure as a result of replacing wheat flour with starch/flour. Protein–starch–lipid matrix formation and variation in water absorption kinetics of treatments most probably wrought batter functionality. The increase in pasting properties with the increase in starch/flour contribution suggested an increased contribution of starch in forming a net effect of batter treatments pasting viscosities. Results of this study provide vital information for the potential use of starch types to enhance the rheological properties of coating applications including adhesion and water holding capacity of substituted batter treatment.     

STARCH AND PECTIC SUBSTANCES AS AFFECTED BY A FREEZE-THAW POTATO GRANULE PROCESS

Changes in total content and fractions of pectic substances and starch were studied in a freeze-thaw process for potato granule production consisting of peeling, steam cooking, hot mashing, freezing and thawing, pre-drying, granulation, drying, cooling and sifting. Pectic substances in raw potatoes (expressed as mg uronide/netted Gem 100g dry wt) were 202.4 for water soluble and only 80 for the calgon-soluble fractions. Water soluble pectic substances increased sixfold after cooking, and calgon-soluble fraction about threefold. Little change was observed in either fraction due to subsequent granule processing steps. There was no indication that pectic substances present in the extracellular matrix could have influenced the processing steps in granule production. Total starch comprised 68.4%/dry wt of raw potato, decreasing slightly after cooking, increasing up to the pre-drying step and stabilizing at a level of 83.7%. In contrast, free water-soluble starch, depended on the processing steps, being lower in cooked unmashed potatoes than in conditioned raw potatoes. Mashing slightly increased starch content while pre-cooling to 5.5°and freezing to −20°C with subsequent thawing to room temperature substantially decreased starch content. Mechanical forces applied in subsequent steps brought about some increase while in the final product the content was related to particle size of the granules. The percentage of broken cells in cooked potatoes mashed at various temperatures appears to be dependent on the free extracellular starch present in cell binding matrix. Broken cell counts were substantially decreased when mashing was performed immediately after cooking at high temperature or when the mash was frozen and thawed. In the latter case determination of Blue Value Index suggested that a decrease in cell binding strength of the matrix occurred due to soluble starch retrogradation.     

大米粉对油炸挂糊食品外壳食用品质的影响

为使油炸食品获得更好的食用品质,对组成糊的米粉原料进行了筛选。采用深层油炸模型,研究了泰国香米、东北长粒香米、稻花香米和长糯米等4种米粉对挂糊油炸食品外壳的吸油率、表观色度、剪切力及感官品质的影响。结果表明,当米粉添加量为16%时,稻花香米粉外壳吸油率最低为11.26%;当添加量为32%时,泰国香米粉的外壳吸油率最低为10.71%。当米粉添加量为16%时,泰国香米粉外壳L值最大为61.31;糯米粉外壳L值始终呈现上升趋势。在硬度方面,当米粉添加量为16%时,稻花香米粉外壳剪切力最大为47.75N;当米粉添加量40%时,糯米粉外壳剪切力仅为19.21N。综合考虑,在4种米粉中,稻花香米粉是挂糊油炸产品优先选用的米粉品种。      

Variation in Minnesota HRS wheats: starch granule size distribution

The functional properties of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) starch, which are responsible for the unique characteristics of many foods, can be in part explained by variations in starch granule sizes. This study characterizes the variation in starch morphology in Minnesota Hard Red Spring wheats and examines the interdependence of the granule size distribution on selected mixing and pasting properties. Starch granule sizes were measured using an automated microscopic imaging instrument in both wheat-meal and flour, and these data were correlated with their respective mixing and pasting properties. Quantitative image analysis showed significant differences (Tukey HSD, P<0.025) in the mean percentage of wheat-meal large starch granules (>10 μm in diameter) among five varieties commonly grown in Minnesota. The proportion of large starch granules also correlated significantly with the pasting properties of wheat-meal and flour, whereas the proportion of starch granules below 10 μm in diameter correlated significantly to the wheat-meal and flour mixing properties.     

Temperature Related Structural Changes in Wheat and Corn Starch Granules and Their Effects on Gels and Dry Foam

The effect of processing temperature on structural changes in wheat, corn, and high amylose corn starch granules was investigated and related to the mechanical properties of gels and microcellular foam (MCF). Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) showed that wheat starch granules form ghosts with thicker walls than dent corn granules. The granule wall was permeable to water and appeared to be at least partially permeable to the solubilized contents of the granule. The ghost walls became visibly porous after heating at 95ºC for 60 min and were completely solubilized by heating to 120ºC. High‐amylose corn starch (HACS) granules were completely dissolved by heating to 140ºC. Gels made with wheat starch had higher gel strength and dynamic modulus compared to dent corn starch gels. The density, compressive strength and modulus of MCF were lower in samples cooked for 60 min. The density of dent corn MCF was higher than that of wheat starch which may have accounted for higher compressive strength and modulus in the corn sample. MCF made from HACS had higher surface area and lower density, compressive strength, and modulus than the other starches tested. There were no significant differences in pore volume or surface area due to extended cooking times.     

Physico-chemical and sensory properties of chips produced using different lupin (Lupinus albus L.) flour formulations and cooking methods

Development of novel snack foods is an important area of research, and different ingredients are being tested to develop and process new formulations. In this study, lupin chips prepared using different formulations (hulled lupin, whole lupin, wheat and corn flours) were cooked using baking and frying, and changes in the sensory and colour parameters, acrylamide contents, fat absorption, peroxide number and p-anisidine values of the final products were studied. Lupin flour significantly changed p-anisidine value of chips. Addition of lupin flour and cooking methods affected the colour, fat absorption and peroxide values. Significant differences in chemical properties of chips made from whole and hulled lupin flours were also observed. Acrylamide was not detected in all the formulations studied. The lupin chips have increased brightness (L*), no acrylamides, reduced peroxide and p-anisidine values and acceptable sensory quality; hence, this ingredient is recommendable for use in snack foods.     

Effect of milling and preparation method on the physical properties and quality of moin-moin (steamed paste)

ABSTRACT:  Moin-moin is steamed cowpea paste native to Nigeria. This product is classified as a protein/starch gel with the dominate portion of the gel network consisting of cowpea starch. Moin-moin was prepared from starting materials (cowpea meal and cowpea flour) and compared to moin-moin prepared from dry, whole, undecorticated cowpea seeds. Texture profile measurements showed that moin-moin made from cowpea flour (small particle size) formed a firmer structure when compared to moin-moin made from either cowpea meal or whole, dry cowpea seeds. Starting materials with smaller particle sizes and longer cooking times produced stickier moin-moin. The cowpea solids to water ratio was shown to affect the firmness of moin-moin, where a 3.75:1 ratio of solids to water produced a firmer product than other concentrations. Generally, color was unaffected across treatment regimens as identified by an expert sensory panel, although instrumental color measurements showed significant differences for hue angle and chroma. This study demonstrated that the particle size of this food ingredient contributes significantly to its functionality in food formulations.     

Influence of Corn Germ Protein on Yield and Quality Characteristics of Comminuted Meat Products in a Model System

Incorporation of corn germ protein in the production of comminuted meat products was tested. Corn germ protein (2%) as stabilizer in pre-emulsified fat (PEF) preparation stabilized sausage emulsions, which were added to the batter during comminution. Corn protein as an ingredient (4%) also increased both the stability of sausage batter (by binding of fat and water) and the yield of the finished product. There were no significant effects of the corn germ protein on hardness and color of finished product. Corn germ protein as a stabilizer in PEF and ingredient resulted in increased water holding capacity and adhesiveness of batter and lower shear force of the finished products. Corn germ protein can potentially be used as an ingredient for comminuted meat production.     

Effects of microwave frying and different flour types addition on the microstructure of batter coatings

In this study, the influences of microwave frying and various flour types on microstructure of batter coatings were investigated. Control batter formulation contained only wheat and corn flour. To determine the effects of different flour types, 30% of the corn and wheat flour mix was replaced with chickpea, rice or soy flours. Frying was performed in microwave oven at 365 W (70%) power level for 1.5 min after bringing the oil temperature to 180 ± 1 °C. Samples were also fried in a conventional fryer at 180 °C for 1.5 and 5.0 min for comparison. Microwave fried samples had higher specific bulk volume and porosity values and also smoother inner surface as compared to conventionally fried samples. Porosity values of different batter formulations were in the range of 0.425–0.484 in 1.5 min microwave fried chicken samples and 0.348–0.392 in 5.0 min conventionally fried ones. Microwave fried samples had comparable or lower hardness values than the conventionally fried ones depending on the flour type used in batter formulation. Microstructure of fried batter was different for different batter formulations. Microwave fried control and chickpea flour containing batter provided formation of larger gas cells on the outer surface. Soy flour containing batter resulted in smallest size gas cells for both frying methods.