Maternal teaching strategies and cognitive styles in Chicano families: Correction to Laosa.

The article "Maternal Strategies and Cognitive Styles in Chicano Families" by Luis M. Laosa (Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 72, No. 1, 45-54) contains an error. On page 48 in the third sentence of the third paragraph in the right-hand column, the sentence should read "Ratio scores are computed by dividing raw frequencies by observation time." (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1980-20784-001.) Hypotheses derived from field-dependence theory were tested for (a) the role that cognitive styles play in determining maternal teaching strategies, (b) the role of these strategies in children's development of cognitive style, and (c) the emergence of cognitive styles in Chicano children. 43 Chicano mothers were observed teaching their own 5-yr-old children. As measures of field dependence/independence, mothers were given the Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WAIS; children were tested with the Children's Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WISC. Relatively field-independent mothers used inquiry and praise as teaching strategies, and field-dependent mothers used modeling. Trends suggest that the teaching strategies to which the child is exposed may influence which cognitive style the child develops. The data provide evidence of construct validity for Chicano women and suggest that at age 5, field dependence/field independence begins to emerge as a coherent construct in Chicano children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of teachers' cognitive styles to pupils' academic achievement gains.

The relationship of teachers' cognitive styles (field dependence vs field independence) and their pupils' academic achievement gains was examined for 2nd and 5th graders. 432 children and 36 teachers were administered the Embedded Figures Test to measure cognitive style. Children and teachers with similar cognitive styles were considered matched, whereas children and teachers with different cognitive styles were considered mismatched. The children were administered the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills twice during a 1-yr period. Results indicate significant effects on gains due to teachers' cognitive styles, but there was no significant outcome associated with the matching variable or with grade level. Thus, children with field-independent teachers showed greater achievement gains than children with field-dependent teachers. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of three field-dependence measures to the reading and math achievement of Anglo American and Mexican American children.

Previous studies relating field dependence to the superior academic achievement of Anglo-American children relative to Mexican-American children have relied exclusively on single-method approaches of measuring this cognitive style. The present study attempted to make a more comprehensive test of the relationship between field dependence and achievement by comparing members of both cultural groups on 3 commonly used measures of field dependence in order to determine the consistency of cross-cultural differences, intercorrelations, and predictive validity of these measures for Anglo-American and Mexican-American schoolchildren. 40 Mexican-American and 40 Anglo-American 1st–4th graders served as Ss and were administered the WISC Block Design subtest, the Children's Embedded Figures Test, and the portable rod-and-frame test. Results generally fail to support the assumptions that (a) Mexican-American children are more field dependent than Anglo-American children, (b) intercorrelations between the 3 field-dependence tests should be significant and comparable for members of both cultural groups, and (c) field dependence is of substantial importance to the school achievement of Anglo-American and Mexican-American children. The educational implications of the findings are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental-attentional capacity: does cognitive style make a difference?

There is currently no consensus on whether the difference between field-dependent and field-independent subjects on tasks of cognitive abilities result from different mental processing strategies, from true group differences in cognitive ability, or from both. School-age children (N = 239) were tested for field dependence/independence using the Children's Embedded Figures Test and for mental-attentional capacity using the Figural Intersection Task. Multigroup scaling models were used to separate the contributions of style from ability in children's performance on Figural Intersection items. Results show that field-dependent children have greater odds of success than field-independent children in Figural Intersection items when the task's mental-attentional demand is above the child's mental attentional capacity, as assessed in the same task. The contrary is true when the task's mental-attentional demand is below or equal to the mental-attentional capacity of the child. Overall, field-dependent children obtain lower estimates of mental-attentional capacity than field-independent children in this task. We discuss the implications of these results for the measurement of mental-attentional capacity and the conceptualization of field dependence/independence.     

Convergent and discriminant validity of measures of cognitive styles and abilities.

Used 10 measures (e.g., Group Embedded Figures Test, Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices) that yielded 15 scores representing the following constructs: analytic style, global style, analytic ability, global ability, and general spatial ability. 50 undergraduates participated. In a factor analysis, the ability measures formed an ability factor, but the stylistic measures failed to converge and formed 4 factors. The Group Embedded Figures Test correlated significantly with the ability measures, but with only 1 of the 2 analytic measures, and it failed to correlate negatively with any global style measure. Most Ss preferred an analytic approach. Results indicate that present field dependence–independence measures are best interpreted as ability tests rather than measures of a cognitive style. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style and teacher-student compatibility.

Studied the effects of cognitive style matching in 32 teacher–student pairs. Tests of 2 cognitive style dimensions—serialism/holism and field dependence/independence—were administered to 54 final-year trainee mathematics teachers and 58 1st-yr psychology students. (Measures were the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Grandlemuller Test). From these, 32 teacher–student pairs were formed so that teachers and students were matched or mismatched on one or both cognitive style dimensions, in conformity with a 2–4 experimental design. Teachers structured and taught to their partners a 30–40 min lesson on the mathematical concept of network tracing. Students were then independently examined. Matching effects were obtained on objective test performance and on teachers' and students' subjective ratings of each other at the extremes of the field dependence–independence dimension. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Souplesse-inertie mentale et jugement de sens.

Studied the effects of cognitive styles (including mental flexibility, field dependence–field independence, perseverance, and responsiveness to stimulus variation) on the speed of verbal comprehension. Human subjects: 98 male and female French adults (university students). Each S's comprehension was assessed using a sentence completion task followed by a meaning judgment task. Cognitive styles were evaluated using a test of mental flexibility by M. Carlier (1973), the Embedded Figures Test by H. A. Witkin et al (1971), the Test de Persévération (Perseverance Test) by R. Zazzo and M. Stambak (1969), and the Test of Developed Designs by G. Tourette (1989). Differences in reaction time (RT) to sentence completion and meaning-judgment tests were evaluated according to cognitive styles. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) and other statistical tests were used. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of field-independence match or mismatch on a communication task.

64 dyads of female undergraduates, either matched or mismatched on field independence–dependence (Group Embedded Figures Test and Hidden Figures Test), played a controlled game of "Password" using both social and nonsocial task words. Within both matched and mismatched dyadic conditions, half the partners were permitted to see each other and half were not. The particular combination of cognitive styles of Ss had a significant influence on performance. Field-independent matched dyads required significantly fewer clues to correctly identify the task words than did field-dependent matched dyads. The performance of the mismatched dyads fell between the 2 matched dyads. Possible explanations of performance differences are considered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance of soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of the performance of male amateur soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests. The relationships between the participants' (N = 14) accuracy, and speed of decision, on simple and complex soccer decision-making tests; scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test under normal conditions: scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test when timed; and time taken to complete the timed condition of the Group Embedded Figures Test were examined. There were no significant correlations between performance on the soccer specific tests and the tests of field dependence/independence.     

Effects of cognitive style and counselor–client compatibility on client growth.

Tests of 2 cognitive style dimensions (serialism–holism and field dependence–independence; measured by the Gandlemuller Test and the Group Embedded Figures Test, respectively) were administered to 60 counselor trainees in graduate clinical and counseling psychology programs and 60 volunteer clients drawn from a university-level applied psychology course. 32 counselor–client pairs matched or mismatched on the 2 dimensions were formed. Counselor and client pairs engaged in 2 50-min therapy sessions that focused on client self-enhancement. In independent rating sessions, matching effects for field dependence–independence were obtained in clients' subjective ratings of improvement in self-exploration skills and in clients' and counselors' subjective ratings of the ease of relating with each other. Implications and applications for achieving maximum counselor–client compatibility in a person–environment interaction model are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style, sensation seeking, and assortative mating.

Examined assortative mating, the tendency of persons to marry others with similar characteristics, among 177 couples (male mean age 37.7 yrs, female mean age 35.1 yrs). Ss completed the Kinesthetic Figural Aftereffects Test, Embedded Figures Test, Matching Familar Figures Test, and the Sensation-Seeking Scale. Findings suggest assortative mating for reflection–impulsivity; reasoning–accuracy; field dependence–independence; and sensation-seeking and its subfactors of experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. Analysis of relationship lengths indicated that the similarities within couples were not the result of increased similarity over time. It is concluded that partner similarities in sensation seeking and cognitive style may play a role in mate selection and in marital quality. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfert d'une stratégie de mémorisation chez des enfants de 10 ans: étude des différences individuelles.

Studied spontaneous or induced use of an organization strategy on free recall tasks by children differing with regard to perceptual field dependence–field independence (i.e., global vs analytic perceptual style). Human Ss: 72 normal male and female school-age children (mean age 10 yrs). In a 2 by 2 by 2 experimental design, Ss were divided into 8 groups according to gender, perceptual style (global vs analytic), and treatment (control vs experimental). The groups received a brief illustration of a semantic organization strategy designed to promote memorization of verbal material. Ss performed 3 successive and identical recall tasks followed by 2 different tasks requiring either a transfer of maintenance or a transfer of generalization. Intergroup differences in memorization strategies and recall performances were analyzed. Tests used: The Group Embedded Figures Test. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field independence and the structuring of knowledge in a social studies minicourse.

Examined the effect of instruction on the correspondence between (a) a model of the structure of concepts in a social studies unit (content structure) and (b) a representation of psychological structure of Ss differing in field independence (FI) and dependence (FD). 98 high school students and 24 social studies teachers served as Ss. FI and FD were assessed with the Group Embedded Figures Test, portable Rod-and-Frame Test, and the Human Figure Drawing Test. When psychological structure was examined with multidimensional scaling of similarity judgments, at posttest it more closely resembled content structure than at pretest. Psychological structure of FI as compared to FD Ss resembled content structure more closely. The FD Ss' psychological structure was less differentiated. All differences between cognitive styles were consistent for both teachers and students. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive style on perceived satisfaction and performance among students and teachers.

Examined the influence of matched or mismatched cognitive styles on perceived satisfaction and performance among students and teachers in 8 classrooms with 192 9th–12th graders. Field-dependence/independence was assessed using the Group Embedded Figures Test; both satisfaction and performance were assessed with Likert-type questionnaire items. ANOVA revealed the predicted interaction effect (favoring matched styles) on student perceptions of satisfaction and a similar trend on perceptions of teacher effectiveness. Although field-independent students scored higher on standardized measures of academic ability, classroom grades were unrelated to student cognitive style. Field-dependent students, however, were perceived as exerting greater effort in class, thus indicating that teachers award grades according to a combination of student ability and perceived effort. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The field dependence–independence construct: Some, one, or none.

Measured the field dependence–independence construct using tests of perception of the upright such as the rod-and-frame test and tests of cognitive restructuring such as the Hidden Figures Test. The relationship between cognitive restructuring and perception of the upright was investigated. 241 high school seniors received 34 tests, including 12 measures of field dependence–independence. Analysis of the data, using multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and factor analysis, resulted in 5 dimensions, including 2 associated with the field dependence–independence measures. One of the field dependence–independence dimensions measured cognitive restructuring; the other, which was related to perception of the upright, was labeled Familiar Field and was postulated to measure strategy selection in familiar situations. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field independence and intelligence: Their relation to leadership and self-concept in sixth-grade boys.

Investigated the relationship between intelligence, field dependence, leadership, and self-concept. 88 6th-grade boys were given the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale and the Group Embedded Figures Test, and their IQs were measured by the Short Form Test of Academic Aptitude. Ten groups of 4 were formed consisting of Ss with different combinations of high and low scores on the IQ and cognitive style measures, and the groups worked on an unstructured construction task. Following each session, members of the group rated each other on leadership, and the percentage of speech time for each S was obtained from tape recordings. Field independence was related to intelligence and self-concept, and analytic Ss exhibited more leadership than global Ss, while IQ did not differentiate Ss on any variable. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in mental abilities, hemispheric lateralization, and rate of physical growth at adolescence.

Tested the hypothesis that sex differences in verbal and spatial abilities are related to sex differences in rates of physical maturation and that this relationship is mediated by variation in the organization of higher cortical functions. 40 males and 40 females, ranging in age from 10-16 yrs, were tested on 3 verbal measures (including the Digit Symbol subtest of the WISC and the Word Fluency subtest of the Primary Mental Abilities Test), 3 spatial measures (including the Block Design subtest of the WISC and a modified version of the Embedded Figures Test), and a dichotic test of phoneme identification. Late-maturing Ss of both sexes performed better than early maturers on tests of spatial ability, but the groups did not differ on tests of verbal ability. Among older Ss, the late maturers of both sexes showed greater hemispheric lateralization than early maturers. Sex differences on the ability measures, although in the predicted direction, did not reach significance. Results are discussed with respect to the relationship between hemispheric organization of function and mental abilities and the relationship between maturational rate and lateralization. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive styles and responses to the threat of frustration.

Compared 60 6-, 8-, and 10-yr-old boys on measures of the cognitive styles reflection-impulsivity (Matching Familiar Figures Test) and field dependence-independence (Children's Embedded Figures Test). A story completion test eliciting responses to the threat of frustration was also administered. All measures showed developmental changes. Older Ss were more reflective, field independent, and optimistic about the outcome of potentially frustrating events. Ss scoring high on measures of impulsivity were also more field dependent and pessimistic in the face of threatened frustration. Implications for personality theory and education are discussed. (French summary) (29 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style effects on sex status in student work groups.

Studied the mediating effect of field independence on sex difference in activity and influence in 27 task groups, each composed of 2 male and 2 female 9th-11th graders. All Ss were administered the Group Embedded Figures Test, portable rod-and-frame test, and Extended Range Vocabulary Test, Form B-3. Ss, matched for verbal ability and field independence within groups, were videotaped discussing a decision-making task. Videotapes were coded for individual verbal activity and influence. A hierarchical analysis of variance design was used, with the effects of cognitive style group, sex, and replication assessed in order. Results indicate Sex * Cognitive Style interaction effects, with males more active and influential than females in field-dependent groups, males more active but not more influential than females in middle-range groups, and males and females equally active and influential in field-independent groups. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive characteristics of suicide attempters.

Contrasted cognitive characteristics of rigidity, impulsivity, and field dependence in a group of 49 19–59 yr old suicide attempters and a group of 48 19–64 yr old nonsuicidal psychiatric controls. All Ss were administered the same test battery consisting of the Embedded Figures Test, the Alternate Uses Test, and the Matching Familiar Figures Test. The suicide attempt group was characterized by greater rigidity in a divergent thinking task while controlling for age and diagnosis using multivariate analysis. Field dependence was more characteristic of the suicide attempters, but only in the 19–34 age group. Impulsivity did not differentiate the 2 groups. The results are interpreted as supporting a hypothesis of a cognitive predisposition to attempting suicide. (1 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)