Computer-based reading and writing across the curriculum: Two case studies of L2 writers

Since the early 1980s, second language (L2) writing specialists have been examining possible roles for computers in L2 writing instruction. How, and to what extent, L2 students use computer for academic literacy purposes beyond the writing classroom, that is, across the curriculum, has not received much attention. Because a common goal of L2 college level writing courses is to prepare students to write in these other domains, an awareness of computer-based literacy activities in non-L2 writing courses is essential to the cause of helping L2 writing instructors connect what students learn in their courses to how they write (and read) in other courses. This paper describes research aimed at contributing to such awareness: a qualitative study of the computer-based reading and writing activity of two undergraduate English as a Second Language (ESL) students beyond ESL writing courses.     

Situation Definition and the Online Synchronous Writing Conference

Since the mid 1990's, more and more college and university writing centers have been offering online synchronous writing conferences to students. Writing center researchers have published extensively on how tutors can promote collaboration in online conferences, but comparatively few have used Lev Vygotsky's conception of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to analyze activity in these conferences or to develop specific methods for working with students in these environments. Using more recent developments in the theory of the ZPD, such as the concept of situation definition, I will discuss how tutors can apply strategies related to the ZPD to promote student learning. By focusing on students’ definitions of rhetorical concepts that often implicitly guide students’ writing processes, tutors can help students improve how they approach their writing tasks. Progress through the ZPD, then, is more related to how students grow their own understanding, rather than on the correcting of students’ texts. I will illustrate this theoretical discussion by presenting examples of two online synchronous writing conferences, and I will describe the implications and possible shortcomings of a method of tutoring that applies the concept of situation definition and the ZPD.     

Learning Java: a programmed instruction approach using Applets

A programmed instruction approach to knowledge acquisition is operationalized by student–teacher interactions that involve monitoring and managing the moment-by-moment progress of a learner throughout the process of achieving a criterion of mastery in a knowledge domain. The teacher is generic and may include another person, a structured text, or a computer. When the steps and increments leading to a task's completion and mastery can be enumerated, the process of interaction-based learning lends itself to implementation with computer-based tutoring systems. The present paper describes a computer-based programmed instruction tutoring system that teaches a learner how to write a simple Java™ computer program. The system is based on a series of Java Applets, which are computer programs that are downloaded from a network server and executed by a client browser such as Netscape®. The use of Java Applets makes the tutoring system available to learners over the World Wide Web. Performance acquisition data are presented to show an individual learner's progression to task completion and mastery using the tutoring system. Survey data are presented to show the subjective responses of a class of students to the use of the tutoring system. The adoption of this computer-based tutoring system is justified as one component within a personalized system of instruction that also includes lectures and collaborative learning experiences.     

Negotiating What's at Stake in Informal Writing in the Writing Center

How do students learn expectations for “informal” online composition? This article details the results of a qualitative study that examines how students and writing consultants negotiate and define writing conventions for “low-stakes,” digital composition: that is, writing assignments that are composed for Blackboard discussion forums and receive only completion grades. Study results are based on both a survey of student experiences with digital composition and a writing center consultation case study at a large, southeastern, RU/VH university. Student anxiety about digital composition and classroom instruction have contributed to writing centers’ status as space for students to work out their fears and questions about new media. This study reports on how digital composition in writing classes has impacted the ways in which writing centers must address issues of audience, consider new methods for invention, and contend with a renewed focus on grammatical correctness. The article presents suggested pedagogy for emerging digital composition and poses questions to those in computers and composition about how we might best approach classroom instruction as digital composition genres evolve.     

巧用Word查找与替换功能

目前,计算机已经逐渐成为人们日常工作、生活中的必备工具之一。字处理软件是人们使用频率很高的一个计算机软件。巧妙地使用Word提供的工具可以大大提高人们编辑处理文字的效率。该文介绍几个运用Word查找与替换功能实现的特殊操作,相信它会对人们进行Word文字处理、提高工作效率有所帮助。     

在Microsoft Word 中使用和操作MATLAB

Microscft Word软件在文字处理方面功能最强,而MATLAB的数值计算功能最优,本文为了充分发挥Microsoft Word和MATLAB的优点,提出了两者的结合,为学者在撰写科技报告、论文、专著等时提供了很大方便。介绍了基于MATLAB的文字处理工具——Notebcek,阐述了在Notehcok基础上,通过M-bcok文档实现在Microsoft Word中使用和操作MATLAB。通过Microscft Word2000中使用MATLAB6．1这个例子,体现出这结合的优越性。     

“How do you know that I don’t understand?” A look at the future of intelligent tutoring systems

Many software systems would significantly improve performance if they could adapt to the emotional state of the user, for example if Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs), ATM’s, ticketing machines could recognise when users were confused, frustrated or angry they could guide the user back to remedial help systems so improving the service. Many researchers now feel strongly that ITSs would be significantly enhanced if computers could adapt to the emotions of students. This idea has spawned the developing field of affective tutoring systems (ATSs): ATSs are ITSs that are able to adapt to the affective state of students. The term “affective tutoring system” can be traced back as far as Rosalind Picard’s book Affective Computing in 1997.This paper presents research leading to the development of Easy with Eve, an ATS for primary school mathematics. The system utilises a network of computer systems, mainly embedded devices to detect student emotion and other significant bio-signals. It will then adapt to students and displays emotion via a lifelike agent called Eve. Eve’s tutoring adaptations are guided by a case-based method for adapting to student states; this method uses data that was generated by an observational study of human tutors. This paper presents the observational study, the case-based method, the ATS itself and its implementation on a distributed computer systems for real-time performance, and finally the implications of the findings for Human Computer Interaction in general and e-learning in particular. Web-based applications of the technology developed in this research are discussed throughout the paper.     

Curriculum knowledge representation and manipulation inknowledge-based tutoring systems

A knowledge-based tutoring system (KBTS) is a computer-based instructional system that uses artificial intelligence techniques to help people learn some subjects. We found that the knowledge communication process involving a KBTS and a human student can be decomposed into a series of communication cycles, where each cycle concentrates on one topic and contains four major phases: planning, discussing, evaluating and remedying. The major contributions of this work are the development of a generic architecture for supporting the knowledge communication between a KBTS and a student, and a graphical notation and schema for supporting the curriculum knowledge representation and manipulation during the planning phase of a tutoring process. The curriculum knowledge about a course can help a tutoring system determine the sequences in which the topics will be discussed with the students effectively and diagnose the students' mistakes. The curriculum knowledge base contains the goal structure of the course, prerequisite relations, and multiple ways of organizing topics, among others. As an example, we focus on developing SQL-TUTOR, a KBTS for the domain of SQL programming. This system has features such as an efficient control mechanism, explicit curriculum knowledge representation, and individualized private tutoring. For allowing the students relative freedom to decide how to study the domain knowledge about a subject, the system provides the students with a group of operators to hand-tailor the learning schedules according to their special backgrounds, requests, and interests     

Designing automated adaptive support to improve student helping behaviors in a peer tutoring activity

Adaptive collaborative learning support systems analyze student collaboration as it occurs and provide targeted assistance to the collaborators. Too little is known about how to design adaptive support to have a positive effect on interaction and learning. We investigated this problem in a reciprocal peer tutoring scenario, where two students take turns tutoring each other, so that both may benefit from giving help. We used a social design process to generate three principles for adaptive collaboration assistance. Following these principles, we designed adaptive assistance for improving peer tutor help-giving, and deployed it in a classroom, comparing it to traditional fixed support. We found that the assistance improved the conceptual content of help and the use of interface features. We qualitatively examined how each design principle contributed to the effect, finding that peer tutors responded best to assistance that made them feel accountable for help they gave.     

Incorporating tutoring principles into interactive knowledge acquisition

This paper argues that interactive knowledge acquisition systems would benefit from a tighter and more thorough incorporation of tutoring and learning principles. Current acquisition systems learn from users in a passive manner, and could instead be designed to incorporate the proactive capabilities that one expects of a good student. We first describe our analysis of the literature on teacher–student interaction and present a compilation of tutoring and learning principles that are relevant to interactive knowledge acquisition systems. We then point out what tutoring and learning principles have been used to date in the acquisition literature, though unintentionally and implicitly, and discuss how a more thorough and explicit representation of these principles would help improve how computers learn from users. We present our design and an initial implementation of an acquisition dialogue system called SLICK that represents acquisition principles and goals explicitly and declaratively, making the system actively reason about various acquisition tasks and generate its interactions dynamically. Finally, we discuss promising directions in designing acquisition systems by structuring interactions with users according to tutoring and learning principles.     

Emergent behaviors in computer-based learning environments: Computational signals of catching up

Self-regulative behaviors are dynamic and evolve as a function of time and context. However, dynamical fluctuations in behaviors are often difficult to measure and therefore may not be fully captured by traditional measures alone. Utilizing system log data and two novel statistical methodologies, this study examined emergent patterns of controlled and regulated behaviors and assessed how variations in these patterns related to individual differences in prior literacy ability and target skill acquisition. Conditional probabilities and Entropy analyses were used to examine nuanced patterns manifested in students’ interaction choices within a computer-based learning environment. Forty high school students interacted with the game-based intelligent tutoring system iSTART-ME, for a total of 11 sessions (pretest, 8 training sessions, posttest, and a delayed retention test). Results revealed that high and low reading ability students differed in their patterns of interactions and the amount of control they exhibited within the game-based system. However, these differences converged overtime along with differences in students’ performance within iSTART-ME. The findings from this study indicate that individual differences in students’ prior reading ability relate to the emergence of controlled and regulated behaviors during learning tasks.     

The effect of computer-assisted cooperative learning methods and group size on the EFL learners’ achievement in communication skills

This study explored the effect of cooperative learning small group size and two different instructional modes (positive interdependence vs. individual accountability) on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) undergraduate learners’ communication skills (speaking and writing) achievement in computer-based environments. The study also examined the effects of disclosing/blinding the participants’ identities while interacting around computers on their post-test. The findings of the study revealed that the computer-based environment enabled the participants to blind their identities and reduce their anxiety from face-to-face debate, and so was very helpful in developing their communication skills. The use of the individual accountability mode was quite useful compared with the positive interdependence mode as it enabled all group members to perform their roles significantly. The 5-student group also significantly outperformed other groups of 2-7 members on the post-test communication skills. In conclusion, the findings of this study bring us a step closer to understanding the technique of cooperative language learning and group size.     

Linguistically-tailored video feedback increases total and positive emotional expression in a structured writing task

A strength of computer-based interventions is the capacity to tailor to individual differences, but most studies have tailored to self-report, rather than linguistic, data. The purpose of the present study was to develop and evaluate the effects of linguistically-tailored feedback on an Internet-based expressive writing intervention. Two hundred eighty-one participants were asked to engage in 3 days of expressive writing and were randomly assigned to one of 3 feedback conditions: control (no feedback), simple (feedback about levels of emotional expression), and directive (simple feedback + suggestions for emotional processing). A Perl-based implementation of Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was developed in order to provide dynamic feedback to participants based on levels of emotional expression identified in their writing. This implementation provided near-perfect correlations with standard LIWC output, r’s = .98-1.00. Positive and total, but not negative, emotional expression increased over time for those who received simple or directive feedback. These findings suggest that linguistically-tailored feedback has the potential to alter patterns of engagement in computer-based interventions. However, additional research is needed to identify the most effective types of feedback in order to enhance immediate effects on writing and longitudinal effects on relevant outcomes.     

Using conferencing to support a culture of collaborative study

Five short undergraduate courses were run, four using a computer-based conferencing system and one paper-based to support collaborative study practices. The seriousness of the emphasis on collaborative study was communicated to the students not only through the use of conferences, but also of students' own writing as set reading material, and of material from the conference as the basis for the final examination. Students responded best when the tutor participated in conferences in a similar style to themselves. Even when some computer-based features were lost, as in the course which used a paper file for public writing, students made significant use of this forum. However factors outside the design of the system for supporting collaboration seemed to play the strongest part in determining the value students found in using the it. These included the physical conditions, initial induction process, tutor's participation style, and assessment practices.     

Four dimensions of significance: Tradition, method, theory, originality

In this article, I reflect on four dimensions of assessing the significance of research in the computers and composition field: tradition, method, theory, and originality. Considering these four key concepts as topoi will help our community define, explain, and predict how future research will significantly contribute to teaching wisely and to writing well with technology.     

Modes of presentation for on-line help: full screen, split screen and windowed formats

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the format used to display on-line help (full screen, split screen and windowed) on user performance and attitudes. Three prototypes of a programmer's editor were developed. The first prototype provided help in full screen format. The second prototype provided split screen help and the third windowed help. It was hypothesized that user performance would be best with windowed help, and that attitudes would be most positive toward windowed help. In addition it was believed that windowed help would fare best because it would allow users to see and work with about two-thirds of the product screen while the help was displayed. Forty-five application programmers participated. Each subject performed three editing tasks using one form of on-line help. No significant differences in performance or attitude were found between those who used full screen, split screen and windowed help. However, comments made by subjects during the assessment suggested that the nature of the help text itself may have affected the results. An examination of these comments indicated several ways in which the organization and writing style of the help text could be improved.     

Explaining students’ attitudes toward books and computers

Despite the increasing and now ubiquitous use of computer technologies, previous research by the authors has indicated a preference for using books over computers in the learning context. This paper presents a follow-up study, which investigates why there is this preference for books amongst the undergraduate population. It was found that findings from the previous study were replicated; namely, attitudes toward books were significantly more positive than attitudes toward computers. Further, significantly more respondents expected to learn more from books than computer-based material, and preferred to learn from books than computers. Reasons for these preferences included practical usability issues, media-related usability, experience and aesthetic values.