住房制度变迁驱动下的中国城市住区空间演化

自改革开放以来,中国的城市住区建设被纳入到改革发展的宏观制度环境当中,住房政策经历了一系列重要的调整和变革。受社会制度背景和住房政策影响,中国的住区空间发展也经历了福利制均质单位空间、市场化住区分异和保障制度影响下住区空间等不同阶段。而当前住房保障制度影响下的住区空间发展也面临着新的问题和矛盾。旨在通过对各个时期社会背景和政策制度作用下的城市住区空间回顾及对当前住区问题分析,探讨现阶段中国住区空间发展问题的解决思路。     

Governing housing in China: State, market and work units

In the last two decades, a wave of reform has swept through the world, changing the way housing systems operate. It leads to alternative housing mechanisms beyond those centred on either state or market. This paper looks at the changing role of state, market and work units in the new structure of housing governance in China.     

Increasing Home Ownership in Urban China: Notes on the Problem of Affordability

Experiments with changing the system of urban housing in China have been implemented sporadically since the early 1980s, but the pace of change has picked up considerably since 1994. While numerous obstacles still exist, policy-makers appear determined to increase home ownership and move toward a market-oriented housing system. This paper reviews the progress made in the 1990s and the outlook for new housing policies being proposed and implemented in China today.     

住房金融体制的国际比较研究及对我国的启示

对国际住房金融的基本融资模式进行概括,并对其中占主导地位的市场化融资模式进行深入的分析与比较,在此基础上,介绍了各国住房金融发展状况。最后对我国住房金融的发展方向提出了政策建议。     

China's Urban Housing Reform: Recent Achievements and New Inequities

China's urban housing reform started in the early 1980s, as a part of comprehensive economic reform. The old system was dominated by work units that provided substantial in-kind services to their employees, including heavily subsidised housing. It brought three serious problems: housing shortages, corruption and inequities. The goals of housing reform were to solve these problems through urban housing privatisation, commercialisation and socialisation. This study examines China's urban housing reform through a case study of the city of Jinan. It first reviews the history of housing development in Jinan from the 1950s to the 1980s, and then analyses Jinan's reform practices in the 1990s. Its finding is that, after many years' efforts, housing reform in Jinan has made substantial progress, but mostly with respect to privatisation. The problem of housing shortages has been addressed and crowding has lessened considerably. Anecdotal evidence suggests that corruption is less widespread than in the past. The other important housing problem, inequity, still exists and, in some respects, has even worsened. In particular, a new form of horizontal inequity has arisen due to the persistent role of work units in housing provision. This paper suggests that, in the future, the government should take a more positive role rather than leaving the market alone to deal with the problem of housing inequity.     

Renters' Housing Behaviour in Transitional Urban China

This paper aims to understand how renters make their housing decisions in urban China, where market mechanisms are being introduced into a previously welfare-oriented housing system. It is argued that while renters now enjoy more housing options, their choices are constrained not only by socio-economic factors as is the case in the West, but also by persisting socialist institutions such as the hukou system and work units. Using a national survey carried out in 1996 and a technique of multi-level modelling, the empirical study suggests that while private housing is becoming an important option, renters who can access public housing are still more likely to choose public housing because of heavy subsidies. Yet, renters with rural and temporary hukou, and those working in low-ranking work units are at a disadvantage in the housing market. In general they do not qualify for public housing, and private housing is their only option. Although the socialist housing system is under reform, it still defines renters' housing access and thus shapes their behaviour in the late 1990s.     

Repackaging the poor? Conceptualising neoliberal reforms of social rental housing

This paper considers the need for conceptual renewal in comparative housing research. Since the mid-1990s, Kemeny’s model of ‘unitary’ and ‘dualist’ rental markets and Harloe’s classification of ‘mass’ and ‘residual’ social housing provision have been repeatedly recycled in comparative studies of ‘social’ and ‘public’ housing provision. Amidst international neoliberal policy mobilities, their models based on liberal welfare regimes wield particular power. Conceived during neoliberal cutbacks of public services, Kemeny’s ‘dualist’ rental market and Harloe’s ‘residual’ model of social housing similarly depict state-subsidised rental housing provision as bureaucratic, and targeted to the poor. Despite empirical change, these models are still used to describe liberal welfare regimes, and to theorise international policy convergence. Based on a review of recent market-oriented reforms of state-subsidised rental housing provision in the US, Australia and England; original neoliberal ‘sites of production’, this contribution asks whether these conceptual models still reflect the empirics. Findings diverge from the models, undermining their assumptions about how neoliberal reforms progress.     

Scenarios for the future of human settlements in the Nordic countries

This is a study of long‐term perspectives for dwelling, construction and planning. It describes postindustrial features of a rich welfare society and the significance of these features for the household and for local life in the residential area—changed patterns for the time devoted to paid and unpaid work, changed household patterns, the spread of self‐service and an incipient saturation in the consumption of goods and housing. The latter is regarded as a consequence of a rapid increase in standard and an even more rapid increase in cost which can no longer be compensated by housing subsidies.

Three scenarios of the future, with the organization of work as a central variable, are outlined from this point of departure. The effect of shorter working hours per week, of lower retirement ages or of extensive exclusion from gainful employment are discussed. The report also discusses which economic and administrative control instruments can be used in housing policy to provide an acceptable housing standard and to protect households against disruptive migrations. One scenario includes a discussion of measures which can lead to increased local cooperation. It is assumed in one scenario that the housing market will be characterized by a situation in which the residents own their own homes, while another scenario develops an administrative municipal housing allocation. It is assumed in all three scenarios that the addition of new dwelling units will be small. As a result, conditions are required which can promote a turnover of the dwelling units so that shrinking households place their excessively large dwellings at the disposal of growing households.     

新形势下深化城市住房规划的探讨——1994-2005年上海住房次级市场动态变化研究的启示

我国城市住房体制由原先的计划福利体制向以市场为主导的体制的转变要求住房规划方法的相应转变。本文在分析住房供应和需求分层的基础上,提出了住房次级市场动态变化的理论框架,揭示了住房次级市场形成、运作和动态变化的过程。通过对上海两个案例住宅区1994-2005年住房次级市场变化的实证研究,提出了加强住房市场研究,以提高城市住房规划科学性和完善相关政策的建议。     

Evaluating residents' satisfaction with market-oriented urban village transformation: A case study of Yangji Village in Guangzhou,China

The large-scale urban village transformation in China has had a profound influence on the livelihood and interests of residents, which has also affected the residents' satisfaction and the stability of the society. This study extends the connotation of residential satisfaction to evaluate residents' satisfaction with market-oriented urban village transformation and to establish a conceptual framework in evaluating the aspects of result satisfaction and process satisfaction. The study examines residents' satisfaction with the market-oriented urban village transformation and the factors that influence this satisfaction using data from a field investigation in Yangji Village, Guangzhou City. Results show that overall, the residents in Yangji Village are satisfied with the transformation and that the residents' satisfaction is influenced considerably by both the results and the process of transformation, that is, community environment and quality, government and enterprise behaviours and housing conditions. The market-oriented model contributes to residents' satisfaction. The study suggests that by considering the process and results of the transformation as well as giving full play to the market-oriented model and paying attention to the model's risks can improve residents' satisfaction with urban village transformation.     

编制住房建设规划的几点思考

供不应求是房价上涨的主要原因。我国城镇住房供需平衡逆转的时间点,可能与美国货币政策转向的时间点重合。届时房价大幅下跌的可能性剧增,将给我国金融系统稳定乃至国民经济健康发展带来严重影响。编制住房建设规划,科学判断未来一段时期城镇住房供求关系,有助于稳定和引导市场预期,实现房价与消费能力基本适应。我国住房建设规划工作现在处于起步摸索期,要尽快启动全国及省区级住房建设规划的编制工作,细化住房政策目标;要科学预测住房需求,合理确定住房建设目标;要编制存量住房改造规划,重视发挥现有资源作用;要优化住房建设空间布局,平衡地区间供需,并方便各阶层群众生产和生活;要妥善处理保障与市场之间的关系,严格执行发展小户型住房的有关政策;要充分发挥房产税作用,降低房屋空置率。     

Domestic property and housing class in contemporary urban China

This article examines the division of housing class in the context of Chinese society since the market-oriented housing reform in 1998. Based on data from a recent study, this paper examines three housing classes and their housing situation in four of China’s major urban centers. The results of a multivariate analysis on housing ownership among the three housing classes show that apart from some socioeconomic factors similar to those in the West, institutional factors, such as the hukou system and resident status, are also significant. The results imply that limited housing choices may have caused over privatization and, to certain extent, a single urban housing system. This could lead to conflict among people in various housing classes, as a response to the inequality in the urban housing market.     

Housing the urban poor in post-reform China: Some empirical evidence from the city of Nanjing

This paper provides first-hand empirical evidence about the differentiation of housing conditions among China’s urban poor families based on a case study of Nanjing. The main findings include: (1) the Hukou family registration system has strong differential effects on poor families’ housing conditions; (2) housing conditions among the urban poor are tightly associated with privatization and home ownership, where non-owners face more severe housing difficulties than nominal owners; and (3) resettlement has played a positive role in improving the poor’s housing conditions, but its positive effects are only present in cases where work units or the government has taken the responsibility of housing the resettled poor. These findings show that housing the urban poor in post-reform China is largely: (1) path-dependent, (2) privatization-oriented, and (3) development-driven, and a mechanism that can pro-actively ensure the poor’s basic right to housing is still lacking.     

Spatial planning and housing policy: On the ties that bind

Spatial planning and housing policy in the Netherlands have supported each other for many years. In addition, spatial planning has played a stimulating role in carrying out spatial policy. Since the end of the 1980s, however, a new coalition has emerged between spatial planning and environmental policy, especially at the intraregional level. In the same period, housing policy has become strongly market-oriented. Thus, frictions have arisen in the relation between spatial planning and housing policy. This paper deals with a number of contradictions between housing policy and spatial planning:

-the artificial shortage of land for housing;

-the tension between urban density and consumer preferences;

-the rigid housing differentiation, which is at odds with the flexibility of housing markets;

-the danger of spatial segregation; and

-the tension between residential construction and environmental priorities.

It proves difficult to combine an ambitious central spatial planning policy with a market-oriented housing policy. A more promising solution would be to approach both fields as a combination of market and policy. This would entail more policy in housing and more market in environmental policy. More coordination between spatial planning and housing policy is both possible and desirable.     

Second Home Ownership in Transitional Urban China

China has recently experienced a massive growth in second home ownership. This paper argues that second home ownership in Chinese cities is not only a result of an increasingly mature housing market but, more importantly, an unintended consequence of socialist housing policies and institutions, such as the subsidized sale of public rental housing and associated partial property rights, the continued provision of subsidized housing by work units, the continuing household registration system and the lack of property tax. Using the 2005 China General Social Survey, this paper empirically studies the patterns and dynamics of second home ownership in urban China. While households' socio-economic status contributes to conventional second home ownership, the persisting socialist housing policies and institutions have led to the unique phenomena of owing one home with partial property rights and owning a second home, and renting the primary home even in the public sector and owning a second home.     

The Maturation of the Neo-liberal Housing Market in Urban China

Neo-liberalism has dominated policy formulation and implementation for three decades and been influential in reshaping urban housing provision in different countries. However, the nature and impact of neo-liberal housing policy developments are also affected by previous arrangements, the exact nature, timing and pace of policy change and by how governments and markets have responded to emerging global and local challenges. This paper examines neo-liberal urban housing reform and market development in China and focuses on market performance and government responses following initial reform. The era of neo-liberal housing policy has been associated with turbulence, market changes and unequal housing and asset distribution. Housing reform and regulation policies have changed frequently in response; and this maturation of the neo-liberal system has important implications for policy and the structure and operation of the market.     

面向新世纪的居住区规划趋势分析

面向新世纪,居住区规划越来越受到社会、经济、文化、科技等领域变革的影响。本文从我国社会主义的市场化经济体制、商品化住房制度、智能化住宅科技、多元化居住文化、产业化住宅政策、社会化住区机能等方面分析阐述居住区规划的新趋向。     

Hangzhou

Once an ancient capital of China, Hangzhou has transformed to a post-socialist city that faces profound changes and critical challenges in various aspects of urban development such as historical legacies, market-oriented urban economy, expansive urban spatial patterns, population management, land use restructuring, and affordable housing provision. Under the increasingly stronger market power, the city strives to reposition itself to be an important economic center in the Yangtze River Delta Region, through strategic and innovative urban growth agenda. This profile identifies some fundamental issues and processes that underscore Hangzhou’s recent urban development and presents future prospect for a coastal metropolis with regional significance.     

HOUSING ALLOWANCES: A CRITICAL LOOK

The Reagan Administration would like to introduce housing allowances as the federal government's principal low-income housing program. The results of HUD's 10-year Experimental Housing Allowance Program suggest important structural limitations to this approach. Only a small portion of the housing allowance is spent on housing. An allowance is likely to least serve those who most need housing assistance. The stock of vacant units is inadequate to meet the demands of voucher recipients. Landlords are not likely to repair substandard units to meet this limited added buying power. And housing market discrimination inhibits mobility that might capture existing standard units. Additional evidence from the Section 8 existing housing and the public assistance programs suggest the limitations of the housing allowance approach. The true motivation for introducing housing allowances would appear to be a desire to withdraw the federal government from its traditional rote as housing provider.     

Ethnic differences in housing in post-Soviet Tartu,Estonia

Social and ethnic stratification has changed significantly in the former Soviet space since 1991. This research analyses the evolution of inherited ethnic differences in housing during two post-Soviet decades in Tartu, Estonia. The results suggest that ethnic inequalities in dwelling type as well as in housing size per person decreased between 1989 and 2008. More minorities now occupy single-family houses than at the end of the Soviet period. Access to modern facilities within dwelling units, however, is still higher among the minority population. We conclude that inherited ethnic differences in housing conditions were pronounced and, despite evidence of decreasing housing inequalities, subsequent changes have been too modest to overcome inherited patterns of housing segmentation from the Soviet period.