Preparing to Plan: Collaborative Planning in Monteverde,Costa Rica

Broad community-scale, collaborative planning processes can help stakeholders develop trust. However, planners should also consider ways to develop trust before embarking on larger community processes. When relationships are fostered between community organizations through smaller planning exercises, those relationships can lead to unexpected and innovative outcomes. Such partnerships lead to independent projects as well as to more effective participation in formalized, broad-based planning. The central components of small working sessions and of their process include allowing relationships to develop over time, creating alternative narratives in the context of community conflict, and validating local knowledge in formal planning discourse. What our experience tells us is that although trust can be built in large, formalized processes, when community members learn to work together beforehand, that earlier groundwork facilitates more effective participation in later projects. Planning as discussed here is iterative and supported by local NGOs in Monteverde, Costa Rica.     

上海2040:以规划组织编制方式转型探索提升城市治理水平

分析了城乡规划组织编制过程在城乡社会治理中发挥的作用,论述了在上海城市发展转型和社会治理创新背景下,“上海2040”规划组织编制过程的转型.通过包容多元主体的利益诉求、搭建线上线下的沟通平台和建立全过程的协作机制,探索了以规划编制过程提升城市治理水平的路径.     

Collaborating to Compete—The Governance Implications of Stakeholder Agendas at Mount Pulag National Park,the Philippines

Regional planning has long sought to manage places that extend across political boundaries. The international trend to decentralize governance and promote co-management of protected areas is consistent with emerging collaborative spatial planning theory (Healey, 1997, 1999, 2006), which suggests that through dialogue, parties assert multiple cultural perspectives, share knowledge, and forge shared landscape values as the basis of decisions. As a form of collaborative spatial planning, co-management specifies shared resource management power between national government and one or more local or indigenous communities. Both approaches assume decentralized governance systems. Although critics fault collaborative planning for glossing over historical and cultural contexts, and for ignoring power in decision making, few case studies ask why partners participate or how specific decentralized governance institutions affect plan implementation. This paper draws from a study of co-management at Mount Pulag National Park, the Philippines—a shared indigenous cultural landscape that was to be managed by a board representing multiple local, indigenous, and national jurisdictions. Tracing road decisions by two municipal partners, the paper summarizes how and why major stakeholders adopted and then circumvented protective policies by building duplicative road projects across fragile forests. In this context of changing indigenous rights, the same decentralization laws that enabled co-management also rewarded competition and strategic behavior that weakened the collaborative and fragmented the shared landscape. The case demonstrates the need to interrogate, rather than assume the benefits of decentralized governance and to study why stakeholders participate before relying on voluntary collaboration to manage regional landscapes. The initial version of this paper was presented to the 2006 annual meetings of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, Fort Worth, Texas.     

Community Plan Making in the Face of Ethnic Conflict in Israel: Lessons for Collaborative Planning Processes

Problem, research strategy, and findings: I focus on community plan making in Israel in the face of ethnic conflict, examining ways in which community-level planning processes are embedded into larger decision systems and how attention to multiscale, institutional linkages and parallel processes can determine the success of collaborative planning efforts. I present a community development case about a dispute over a local Bedouin land claim in a Jewish community in northern Israel, mediated over more than a decade. My research is based on a longitudinal 12-year case study of this planning dispute. There were three phases to the plan making: facilitated strategic plan development, facilitated collaborative decision making, and direct negotiations. Community planning is inevitably a lengthy endeavor, embedded in concentric decision contexts. The first 10 years of the dispute were devoted to achieving shared agreements among community members at the table, ignoring the interfacing and partnerships with state, national, or other nonlocal stakeholders. Only in the last two years did the community finally forge these relationships and reach an understanding of the impacts that parallel processes (occurring outside of the community) would have on the local dispute, leading to a community plan and resolution.

Takeaway for practice: Community planning agendas must consider the interests of all relevant stakeholders, paying attention to multiscale, nonlocal players. Planners need to maintain and understand the links to and knowledge of other ongoing planning processes to understand how they might affect the community plan-making process at hand. Ethnic conflict cannot be ignored. Continuing with the business of community planning in the face of ethnic conflict in some ways helps minimize the importance of the ethnic dispute.     

Trust in Planning: Theoretical and Practical Considerations for Participatory and Deliberative Planning

Trust is a central element of planning practice because the profession is positioned at the nexus of public and private interests, has a crucial role in the contested management of space, and seeks to promote democratic governance and public participation in local decision making. While trust (social and interpersonal) is often cited as a central factor contributing to the success or failure of participatory planning processes and of plan implementation, its role in planning has not been fully conceptualized. Building on the literature on trust in governance, this paper highlights key characteristics and paradoxes of trust, discusses the importance of trust for cooperation and planning, and presents the factors that hinder and promote trust. This discussion provides the bases for planning practice and research aimed at effective trust building.     

A Planning Life: Bridging Academics and Practice

Looking back at a life as a planner–educator, the author sees many positive signs that three main concepts not only continue to shape the field of planning in fundamental ways, but are gaining steam. First, the primary product of city and regional planning is the creation of good places for people—not only physically, but also socially, economically, and environmentally—from streets and neighborhoods to cities and regions. Second, public planning is fundamentally a collaborative process, involving not only direct stakeholders but also an influential cast of practitioners, politicians, administrators, citizens, advocates, analysts, researchers, and educators. Third, the most important role for the planner is to be a tireless advocate for good collaboration and good places, building consensus for doing the right thing through helping the public and decision makers understand the consequences of their actions.     

Spatial Planning Judgments and Computer Supported Collaborative Planning

The role of planning support systems has become closely aligned with the dominant theoretical paradigms – primarily collaborative planning and communicative rationality – within the field of urban planning. However, scholars from Human-Computer Interaction have built a theoretical tradition drawing on Activity Theory, among others, to describe computer supported collaborative learning. Collaboration, from this perspective, represents a form of distributed learning situated within a social interaction. Individuals work with each other and technology to converge on shared conceptual understandings of the problem space and to develop a shared praxis for collaboratively addressing those problems. Instead of the tools talking, technology plays a critical role in helping stakeholders develop a common ground for planning and supporting an activity-aware praxis. I use empirical examples from a planning process on Cape Cod, Massachusetts to illustrate these features of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) for a planning audience. I focus, in particular, on how planning support systems mediate group judgments about space and scale to account for spatial scale mismatches between the Cape’s watersheds and towns.     

Informality as a Planning Strategy

In 1994 an unusual, if not unique, collaborative effort emerged to manage the highly contested and interconnected system of waters, levees, and habitat in the San Francisco Bay Estuary and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. This CALFED Bay-Delta Program (CALFED) engaged 25 federal and state agencies and representatives of 35 major stakeholder groups and local agencies in a joint search for solutions to Bay Delta problems. It changed how water was managed and produced new practices that persisted until at least 2005. CALFED's collaborative approach is by nature informal, and it coexists uneasily with the norms and structure of formal government. This story illustrates how formal and informal systems are interdependent, yet in tension, across planning, participation, and decision making. Because planners often operate in the interface between the formal and the informal, the story offers lessons that can be applied at many levels of government and for many planning tasks.     

Regulatory Power,Network Tools and Market Behaviour: Transforming Practices in Norwegian Urban Planning

Planning changes can be initiated formally through revisions of statutory rules; alternatively changes can arise informally through amendments to everyday planning activities. This article explains how local planning authorities in Norway introduce new planning practices relating to the management of land and planning procedures. The observed new practices have been introduced even though the formal hierarchical structure of the planning law has stayed unchanged. They are analysed as outcomes of the changing use of tools under the three models for co-ordinating behaviour: hierarchy understood as government, market and network. First, the existing planning system is analysed to explain the legal possibilities for changing planning practices informally. Two categories of practices are then discussed: the use of the detailed development plan as an implementation instrument, and the use of the regulatory power in framing interconnections and responsibilities towards stakeholders. The main conclusion is that regulatory tools have lost some strength in favour of tools under the network model, and that the observed changes in planning practices are mostly a result of mutual dependencies between these two models for co-ordinating behaviour.     

基于多功能协同评价模型的乡村绿道 规划研究

随着乡村振兴战略的提出,乡村绿道作为绿色线性 空间建设的抓手越来越受到政府重视。但在现有技术条件的 指导下,乡村绿道建设成效往往表现出明显的单一性与不协同 性。为此,引入协同学理论,在分析现有绿道研究水平的基础 上,指出乡村绿道规划需达到多功能协同与多因子协同,建立 了以生态、文化、游憩、产业4个功能为子系统,以连通性、 可达性、适宜性为序参量的乡村绿道协同评价体系,定量分析 各功能子系统间的协同作用和乡村绿道整体的协同程度,从而 提出乡村绿道规划方法和应用途径,并以嘉善县大云镇乡村绿 道规划为例,应用协同评价模型进行实践应用验证。     

Civic Formation and a New Vocabulary for National Planning

The interest in spatial planning and territorial cohesion has prompted new scales of land-use planning interventions. This paper considers the experimentation and learning around the National Planning Framework in Scotland. This political instrument is predicated on active public participation to craft and legitimate a national planning agenda to re-position a devolved Scotland in a global context. The process involves a two-year programme of participatory activities. This paper conceptualizes this innovation through a discussion of the prerequisites for civic involvement at this national scale. It explores ideas relating to the need to develop a national vocabulary in the context of a small nation state. It highlights ideas relating to civic virtue and civic formation and the significance of an interest in public affairs, respect and trust, political equality, and a sense of public-spiritedness in preparing the way for active public engagement.     

数字化城市规划编制系统的构建——以哈尔滨市城乡规划设计研究院为例

目前,城市规划管理已经成为数字城市技术应用最活跃的领域,而在城市规划编制环节,数字化技术应用严重滞后.针对这一问题,哈尔滨市城乡规划设计研究院分析了构建数字化规划编制系统的技术路径,提出将GIS与AutoCAD进行跨平台结合,充分发挥两者优势,构建数字化规划编制系统的体系结构及实现的方法.     

Adaptive Planning for Disaster Recovery and Resiliency: An Evaluation of 87 Local Recovery Plans in Eight States

Problem, research strategy and findings: A pre-disaster recovery plan that considers how a community should be redeveloped is a logical first step to support resiliency during high uncertainty and rapid change, yet limited attention has been given to recovery plans. In this study, we evaluate local disaster recovery planning in eight southeastern states and find that such planning receives limited public support: Less than one-third of vulnerable local jurisdictions had a recovery plan, and those plans received low plan quality scores. Unfunded state mandates produce weaker plans than plans in other states without mandates. We find that a collaborative network of stakeholders initially intent on reordering priorities results in stronger plans.

Takeaway for practice: Local recovery planning should be designed to operate under conditions of high uncertainty. Local jurisdictions can choose plan design options that reflect how they build capability for recovery planning: 1) standalone community-wide recovery plan; 2) comprehensive land use plan; 3) emergency management plan; and 4) small area recovery plan. Because recovery planning lacks a public constituency, and is new to most local jurisdictions, the stand-alone community-wide recovery plan design option is the most effective at building local commitment. This option involves a plan-making process that concentrates time, effort, and resources focused on a building a network of stakeholders who likely have the greatest responsibility in rebuilding efforts because they care most about the impacts of a disaster.     

和谐城市与和谐规划——试论城乡规划从技术支撑向制度设计的角色转换

建设和谐城市除要求目标和谐之外,还要求过程和谐。随着城乡规划工作理念和工作手段的转变,传统城乡规划无法满足过程和谐的要求,城乡规划的重心将由技术支撑逐渐转向制度设计。在现行城乡规划基本制度框架下,应明确各部门职责,实现城乡规划制定、实施、监督三个主体的相互独立,建立规划委员会决策、人大监督、多头实施的机制,增加与上位规划相对接的年度计划环节。     

基于GIS的城市规划编制信息资源协同系统应用研究

为解决规划院内部复杂的规划编制信息资源的整合及分享问题,可从实际的规划项目编制流程出发,在规划项目的生命周期中,通过建立动态的规划信息资源提交和检校机制,形成准确、全面的规划编制全阶段的信息资源共享库,并完善规划信息资源浏览、查询统计及分享调用等功能,搭建城市规划编制信息资源协同系统,最终实现准确、及时的规划编制信息资...     

Neighborhood Planning as Collaborative Democratic Design

Problem: Historically, neighborhood participation has lapsed into NIMBYism or has not been especially effective at long-term, inclusive, and integrative planning.

Purpose: I aim to describe and analyze an example of how local governments can function as civic enablers and capacity builders for collaborative and accountable planning among neighborhood stakeholders and city government.

Methods: This is a case study of Seattle's neighborhood planning approach in the 1990s based on semistructured interviews with 33 current and former planners, other officials, and neighborhood activists, and review of a broad selection of neighborhood plans and other planning documents and newspaper coverage of the planning process.

Results and conclusions: The city of Seattle developed a set of tools and resources to empower local citizens in the planning process while also holding them accountable for actions consistent with specified broad values and planning targets. This, together with the city's substantial investment in neighborhood planning staff, who served as relational organizers and intermediaries of trust, was critical to the success of neighborhood planning and to the emergence of a collaborative governance culture among highly diverse and often contentious community associations, business interests, city departments, and the city council.

Takeaway for practice: Diverse neighborhoods can find common ground and make positive progress on planning to address shared citywide concerns. However, they need staff assistance to do this. Neighborhood planners can play this role, but only if cities fund them to do this time-consuming work and provide institutional support and guidance.     

目标与实施导向下的总体规划指标体系研究

为了有效保障总体规划的实施和战略目标的实现,上海新一轮城市总体规划在“目标(指标)-策略-机制”的逻辑框架中,提出要构建面向目标与实施导向的指标体系.在总结国内不足和借鉴国外经验的基础上,按照上海新一轮总规的导向要求,建立包含“核心指标-监测指标-系统指标”的指标体系,遴选出30项核心指标,并通过与规划策略的关联耦合,充分发挥指标体系的衔接作用,对城市总体规划创新进行了探索.     

厦门市空间规划供给体系改革探索

近年来厦门为落实中央多规合一的战略布局,以供给侧改革为切入点,推进规划工作转型,更好地发挥规划对统筹城市空间发展的战略引领作用.厦门以“多规合一”工作为抓手,构建“规划编制、规划实施、规划监管”相互分离而又紧密衔接的空间规划供给体系.在规划编制上,加强统筹规划,建立统一的空间规划编制体系;在规划实施上,构建“战略规划+五年规划+年度计划”的实施体系,通过项目生成加强规划统筹;在规划监管上,构建了全过程一体化的监管制度和清单管理的监管方式,完善了监管体系.     

Re-understanding the Role of City Master Planning in the Spatial Planning System

Holding a dominant position in the spatial planning system at the city level, a city master plan should be able to guide both long-term strategies and short-term planning implementation, while taking into account both resource conservation and urban-rural development and coordinating multi-government power and interests of various stakeholders. In the future, city master planning should keep its advanced nature and must follow the principles of being people-oriented, paying equal attention to both development quality and quantity, promoting diversified development, and containing multiple driving forces for development.     

The “deliberative bureaucrat”: deliberative democracy and institutional trust in the jurisdiction of the Finnish planner

This article seeks to elaborate on Forester’s notion of the planner as a “deliberative practitioner”, aiming to add sensitivity to the institutional conditions of planning, focusing especially on Finland. In terms of trust, the concept of deliberative practitioner mostly focuses on interpersonal trust as a planner’s resource in mediating particular interests. Thereby, when applied to the Finnish context, institutional trust may be undermined as a key resource for the Finnish planner’s jurisdiction, justifying his/her proactive role and authority in bringing broader concerns to the planning agenda. This undermining prevents the acknowledgement of important institutional resources that the Finnish planner has in coping with the tensions between communicative ideals and neoliberal realities. A more context-sensitive and institutionally responsive theory of communicative planning is needed to help the planning professionals and other stakeholders conceive the deliberative ideals as supportive for the planners’ institutionally strong agency. Hence, the notion of the “deliberative bureaucrat”. The article seeks to develop an outline for such a theory by drawing upon studies of legal culture, the sociology of professions, deliberative democracy theory and the concept of trust.