The determination of mutton tallow in mutton/beef tallow mixtures

A method is proposed for the determination of the mutton tallow content of mixed beef and mutton tallow samples. The calculation is based on the determination of conjugated diene,trans acids, and monocis unsaturated acids in the sample. The analytical findings are employed in a single equation which is weighted to minimize uncertainty due to natural variation. The method is largely independent of the degree of “seeding” of the tallow prior to sampling and is accurate to approximately ±14%. This accuracy is considered reasonable in view of the natural variations of the two fats and their close analytical similarity.     

Fuel properties of tallow and soybean oil esters

Fuel properties of beef tallow, soybean oil, their esters, and blends with No. 2 diesel fuel and ethanol were determined. Fuel properties tested were viscosity, specific gravity, API gravity, distillation ranges, calculated cetane index, energy content, flash point, water content, sulfur content, carbon residue, particulate matter, acid value, copper-strip corrosion test, ash content, melting point, cloud point, and pour point. Gas-chromatographic analyses of tallow, soybean oil, and their esters were performed to determine their major constituents. Viscosities of soybean oil and tallow were significantly reduced by esterification. Other fuel properties of the esters and their blends with No. 2 diesel fuel and ethanol were similar to the properties of No. 2 diesel fuel.     

Analysis oftrans-18:1 isomer content and profile in edible refined beef tallow

Thetrans 18:1 acid content and profile for several samples of edible refined beef tallow were determined monthly over a period of one year. For this purpose, gas-liquid chromatography was combined with silver-ion thin-layer chromatography. The mean content oftrans-18:1 isomers was 4.9±0.9% (n=10) of total fatty acids with a minimum of 3.4% and a maximum of 6.2%. The distribution profile of individual isomers was also established. As in other ruminant fats (milk fat, meat fat), the main isomer is vaccenic (trans-11 18:1) acid. Other isomers, with their ethylenic bonds between positions 6 and 16, were found in lesser amounts. However, some slight but definite differences exist between beef tallow and cow milk fat. The relative proportion of vaccenic acid is higher in the former than in the latter. However, the distribution pattern oftrans-18:1 isomers in beef tallow closely resembles that in beef meat fat (lean part).     

Thermal stability of some flavonoids and phenolic acids in sheep tallow olein

In this study, the thermal stability of some phenolic antioxidants including flavonoids (quercetin and catechin) and phenolic acids (gallic acid, tannic acid, ellagic acid and caffeic acid) in tallow olein was investigated. Tallow olein fractionated from sheep tallow fat was used as a medium to study the antioxidant activity at 120, 140, 160 and 180°C. In order to extract tallow olein, a three‐stage fractionation method was performed on sheep tallow fat at the constant temperatures of 25, 15 and 5°C using acetone as a solvent. The results suggested that quercetin and ellagic acid had the highest thermal stability amongst others, while gallic acid and caffeic acid exhibited the least thermal stability. Practical applications: The sheep tallow fat has been primarily used in soap manufacturing and its application as an edible fat has been limited due to its high content of saturated fatty acids. Extraction of the liquid phase of tallow fat (tallow olein) by fractionation reduces its long‐chain saturated fatty acid content to an acceptable level for edible consumption. The fractionation process, as negatively affects the stability to autoxidation, should be followed by stabilisation with antioxidants. The recent interest in natural antioxidants encouraged the authors to investigate the thermal stability of phenolic antioxidants in tallow olein. It is necessary to determine the thermal stability of antioxidants to predict their appropriateness to be used in high‐temperature applications such as deep frying. Fractionation and stabilisation with appropriate antioxidants are the important steps to utilise tallow olein as an edible oil for different applications in salad formulations, cooking and frying.     

Comparison between conventional and ultrasonic preparation of beef tallow biodiesel

Tallow is biodiesel feedstock that, due to its highly centralized generation in slaughter/processing facilities and historically low prices, may have energetic, environmental, and economic advantages that could be exploited. Transesterification of fatty acids by means of ultrasonic energy has been used for biodiesel production from different vegetable oils. However, application of ultrasonic irradiation for biodiesel production from beef tallow has received little attention. In this work, the transesterification of beef tallow with methanol was performed in the presence of potassium hydroxide as a catalyst using ultrasound irradiation (400 W, 24 kHz). The reaction time, conversion and biodiesel quality were compared with that seen in conventional transesterification. The results indicated that the reaction conversion and biodiesel quality were similar; however, the use of ultrasonic irradiation decreased the reaction time, showing that this method may be a promising alternative to the conventional method.     

Beef tallow biodiesel produced in a pilot scale

In the present work, the process of biodiesel production in a pilot plant has been studied using beef tallow as raw materials with methanol and potassium hydroxide as catalyst. The biodiesel quality is regulated by Brazilian specifications (Resolution 42) by the National Agency of Petroleum (ANP). The alkaline transesterification of animal fat with methanol produces a biodiesel with high quality and also with a good conversion rate. The process is possible but the economical viability must be improved by recovering methanol and glycerin. The obtained results have been used for industrial scale up of the process.     

Identification of 11,15-octadecadienoic acid from beef and mutton tallow

By means of gas liquid chromatography and thin layer chromatography on Silica gel G/AgNO₃ we isolated some isolinoleic acids from beef and mutton tallow, which by their chromatographical behavior, IR analysis and by double bond determination by ozonolysis are mainly stereo-isomeric 11,15-octadecadienoic acids and in a smaller amount stereo-isomers of 10,15-octadecadienoic acids. 4-Cis- and 4-trans-heptenals, 2-trans,6-cis- and 2-trans,6-trans-nonadienals have been isolated from the DNPH mixture obtained from the volatile decomposition products of an oxidized synthetic mixture of stereo-isomeric 11,15-octadecadienoic acids. Presented in part by G. Hoffmann at the 7th ISF Congress, Hamburg, October 1964.     

Impacts of Refining and Antioxidants on the Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Oxidative Stability of Watermelon Seed Oil

Compositional analyses of seeds from two cultivars (Mateera and Sugar baby) was performed to evaluate their suitability as oilseeds. Watermelon seeds and kernels contained 21.9–25.5 % and 38.9–46.9 % oil of exceptionally high quality. The crude oil was expelled with a screw press and then refined to obtain a odor free and colorless oil. The moisture content, unsaponifiable matter content, refractive index, and specific gravity were within the narrow ranges. Refining influenced the color, acid value, saponification value, peroxide value, and free fatty acid contents. Linoleic acid (C18:2) was the principal fatty acid constituting 64.5–67.2 % of the total fatty acids. Oxidative stability increased with the addition of tocopherols, butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA), and tert-butyl hydroxyl quinine (TBHQ). The high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) along with physicochemical properties were similar to soybeans, sunflower and other common vegetable oils, suggesting the suitabilty of watermelon seed oil for industrial production.     

Safety of oleochemical products derived from beef tallow or bone fat regarding prions

Bovine bone fat and beef tallow are widely used as raw material for oleochemical processes. Due to high temperature and pressure these processes are supposed to have an excellent inactivation potential for prions, i.e. the agent of BSE and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. To experimentally prove the destruction of the pathogenic prion protein aggregates under technically relevant conditions, oleochemical processes were emulated in the laboratory in reduced scale. Fat samples were spiked with highly infectious ex vivo prion rods and aliquots were taken before and after the processes. From these aliquots, undegraded prion protein was precipitated and determined by a sensitive Western blot assay. Degradation factors of 2 ?10³ ‐ 10⁴ for catalytic fat hydrogenation and 10⁷ for fat hydrolysis represent acceptable safety limits. With these experimental prion protein degradation factors the risk of human exposure to oleochemical products of bovine origin can be assessed. Assuming worst‐case scenarios, the annual risk for human consumption of hydrogenated beef tallow is less than 6.8 x 10^‐7 and for skin application of fatty acid derivatives is less than 7.0 x 10^‐10. Both values are smaller than the background risk of contracting sporadic Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease (1 x 10^‐6 per annum).     

Solid phase enzymatic glycerolysis of beef tallow resulting in a high yield of monoglyceride

A mixture of mono-, di- and triglycerides was obtained when beef tallow was reacted with glycerol using lipase enzyme as a catalyst. The reaction was carried out batchwise in a small vessel with agitation by magnetic stirring. The yield of monoglyceride (MG) was greatly influenced by the reaction temperature—at higher temperatures (48–50°C) a yield of approximately 30% MG was obtained, while at lower temperatures (38–46°C) a yield of approximately 70% MG was obtained. A sharp transition was observed between the high and low yield equilibrium states. The temperature at which this transition occurred is called the critical temperature (T_c) and was found to be 46°C in the case of tallow. During the course of the reaction, when approximately 40% MG had been synthesized, the reaction mixture became solid but the reaction continued until approximately 70% MG had been synthesized. A yield of 70% MG also was obtained with tallow at 42°C when a glycerol/tallow mole ratio ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 was used. The free fatty acid content at equilibrium depended on the water concentration in the glycerol phase and varied from 0.5% to 11.0% when the water content ranged from 0.6% to 12.5%. Above 8% water content, the yield of MG was reduced. Of the commercially available lipases that were investigated, lipase fromPseudomonas fluorescens orChromobacterium viscosum resulted in the highest yield of MG.     

Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Biochemical Properties of Grape Seeds

In the present study, grape seed samples (Alicante Bouschet, Cabernet Franc, Cinsault, Merlot, Shiraz) were treated with 1.0, 3.0, 5.0, and 7.0 kGy of gamma radiation. Effect of irradiation dose on free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), sterol, fatty acid composition, phenolic content, antioxidant activity of the seed oils, and chemical (dry matter, fat, ash, total sugar, invert sugar) changes of grape seeds were determined. Regarding fatty acid composition, oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2) levels decreased. β-sitosterol content with a highest percentage among sterols in grape seed oils decreased due to gamma irradiation. Generally gamma irradiation increased free fatty acids and peroxide value of the oils; however, phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of grape seeds decreased.     

棉籽酸化油的理化性质及脂肪酸组成分析

采用气相色谱法分析了棉籽酸化油的脂肪酸组成,并对其理化性质进行了研究。分析结果表明,棉籽酸化油的含油率为91.33%,酸值为144.35mgKOH/g,碘值为116.58gI2/100g,皂化值为199.80mgKOH/g;其主要脂肪酸为棕榈酸(21.29%)、硬脂酸(2.29%)、油酸(23.72%)、亚油酸(50.23%)和亚麻酸(0.39%),其中不饱和脂肪酸的含量高达74%,具有很高的工业利用价值。     

High-yield diacylglycerol formation by solid-phase enzymatic glycerolysis of hydrogenated beef tallow

Diglyceride (DG) was prepared by reaction of hydrogenated beef tallow and glycerol in the presence of aPsesudomonas lipase. The yield of DG depended strongly on the reaction temperature. After initial incubation at 60°C for 2 h, followed by the first temperature shift down to 55°C for 4 h and then the second shift down to 48°C for up to 3 d, the reaction mixture became solid and a yield of approximately 90% DG was obtained. About 95% of total DG was 1,3-DG. The yield of DG was also dependent on the glycerol (GL) to triglyceride (TG) molar ratio. At the molar ratio of 1∶2 (GL/TG), the enzyme-catalyzed reaction was highly efficient and utilized essentially all of the glycerol. The free fatty acid (FFA) content at equilibrium depended on the water concentration in the glycerol phase. The initial rate of FFA formation was low and was hardly affected by the moisture content between 0.5 and 4%, but, at higher water content (4–6.7%), there was a small increase in the rate.     

Effects of extraction and fractionation pressures on supercritical extraction of cholesterol from beef tallow

Edible beef tallow was extracted by supercritical CO₂ in a dynamic mode at pressures from 138 to 345 bars and temperatures of 40 and 50°C. The lipid fractions were collected at 34.5 bar/40°C. A retrograde behavior of lipid solubility was observed around 170–175 bar. The ranges of the cholesterol concentration [chol.], were 300–450 mg/100 g and 50–200 mg/100 g lipid for the fractions extracted at 138 bar and 345 bar, respectively. Beef tallow was also extracted with sequentially varied pressures of 138, 345 and 138 bars at 40°C and collected at 34.5 bar/40°C. The results showed that after 20 kg CO₂ was used for extracting 100 g of loaded beef tallow the weight of the residual beef tallow remaining in the extractor was 23 g with [chol.] of 49 mg/100 g lipid. The lower [chol.] of the residual beef tallow represents a 60–70% reduction in cholesterol content, when compared with untreated beef tallow where [chol.] ranges from 130 to 160 mg/100 g lipid. To isolate lipid fractions containing higher [chol.], beef tallow was extracted at 345 bar/40°C and then fractionated into three separators connected in series with decreasing pressures of 173 bar, 117 bar, and 34.5 bar at 40°C, respectively. The results showed that the fractions collected from the third separator (34.5 bar) contained concentrated [chol.] ranging from 272 to 433 mg/100 g lipid. The fatty acid analysis revealed that the fractions containing high [chol.] generally consisted of high concentrations of myristic and palmitoleic acids but low concentrations of stearic and oleic acids.     

D. K. Bhattacharyya,Modification of tallow fractions in the preparation of edible fat products

Investigation has been carried out with an intention to prepare shortening, margarine fat bases, and value-added edible fat products like cocobutter substitute from tallow. For this, tallow was fractionated at low (12 and 15 °C) and intermediate (25 °C) temperatures by solvent (acetone) fractionation process. The stearin fractions (yield: 23—40% (w/w) and slip melting point: 45—50.5 °C) thus obtained were blended and interesterified with liquid oils, such as sunflower, soybean, rice bran etc. by microbial lipase catalyzed route. The olein fractions (yield: 60—77% (w/w) and slip melting point: 21—32.5 °C) were also chemically interesterified (using NaOMe) and biochemically (using Rhizomucor miehei lipase, Lipozyme IM 20). The olein fractions were also blended with sal (Shorea robusta) fat, sal olein, and acidolysed karanja (Pongamia glabra) stearin. As revealed from their slip melting point and solid fat index, the products thus prepared were found to be suitable for shortening, margarine fat bases, and vanaspati substitute.     

Preparation of KF/CaO nanocatalyst and its application in biodiesel production from Chinese tallow seed oil

KF/CaO nanocatalyst was prepared by using impregnation method and used to convert Chinese tallow seed oil to biodiesel. The effects of different preparation conditions on biodiesel yield were investigated and the structure of the catalyst was characterized. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) photograph showed that the catalyst had porous structure with the particle size of 30-100 nm. Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) analysis indicated that the catalyst specific surface area was 109 m² g⁻¹ and average pore size was 97 nm. X-ray diffractometer (XRD) analysis demonstrated that the new crystal KCaF₃ was formed in catalyst, which enhanced catalytic ability. Under the optimal conditions, the biodiesel yield was 96.8% in the presence of as-prepared KF/CaO catalyst, showing potential applications of catalyst in biodiesel industry.     

Investigation of hotpot oil based on beef tallow and flavored rapeseed oil in commercial hotpot seasoning

This study aimed to investigate the quality of hotpot oil from various hotpot seasonings. For this, 12 representative hotpot seasonings with beef tallow (BT) and flavored rapeseed oil (FRO) were collected before the hotpot oil was extracted. The oil content, sensory evaluation scores, physiochemical properties, fatty acid composition, harmful substances, and nutrient content of the hotpot oil were subsequently analyzed. The results showed that the oil content of the hotpot seasoning was 38.3%–58.2%. Furthermore, the BT hotpot oils produced better sensory scores (7–8.5), and their oxidative stability (12.08–13.17 h) was higher on average than that of the FRO hotpot oils. Additionally, the FRO hotpot oils had higher contents of unsaturated fatty acid (81.70%–97.32%), phytosterol (3466.07–6110.37 ppm), tocopherol (182.91–1276.17 mg kg⁻¹), and polyphenol (34.48–61.94 mg kg⁻¹). The factor analyses revealed that the FRO and BT hotpot oils were significantly different and were affected by the iodine value, acid value, and linoleic acid and phytosterol contents. Practical applications: It is necessary to improve the nutritional value and taste of hotpot oils to facilitate rapid development in the hotpot seasoning industry. This study showed FRO was a positive mediator of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects owing to its richness of nutritional compounds, such as polyphenols, phytosterols, and tocopherols. In comparison, BT was found to have a lower nutritional value than FRO but added a unique taste and aroma to the hotpot. The use of blended oil as raw oil could also improve the quality of hotpot oil. This information will provide an important guide to the nutritional value and industrial production of hotpot oil. Blended oil is a promising raw oil for future use in hotpot seasoning processing to meet consumer demands for nutritious and pleasantly flavored hotpot oil.     

An Empirical Equation for Estimation of Kinematic Viscosity of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters and Biodiesel

Kinematic viscosity (µ) is an important physical property of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and biodiesel. In this work, the Martin's rule of free energy additivity is extended to cover the kinematic viscosity of saturated and unsaturated FAME commonly found in nature. The proposed model can also be extended to estimate kinematic viscosity of biodiesel. The kinematic viscosity of a FAME or a biodiesel can be easily estimated from its carbon number (z), number of double bonds (n_d) at different temperatures (T) without a prior knowledge of the viscosity of individual FAME. Both z_ave and n_d(ave) can be derived from its fatty acid composition. Thus, kinematic viscosity of biodiesel at temperatures between 20 and 100 °C and at atmospheric pressure can be estimated. The average absolute deviation (AAD) estimated at 20–100 °C for saturated, unsaturated FAME, biodiesels and biodiesel blends are 4.15, 3.25, 6.95 and 2.79 %, respectively. The biodiesels collected in this study (191 data points) have the z_ave and n_d(ave) between 14.10 and 17.96 and 0.21–1.54, respectively. The standard deviation was 0.249. The proposed model would be good for estimation of viscosity of biodiesel containing normal fatty acids, generally found in biodiesel feed stocks.     

Chemical and enzymatic interesterification of a beef tallow and rapeseed oil equal‐weight blend

A mixture of beef tallow and rapeseed oil (1:1, wt/wt) was interesterified using sodium methoxide or immobilized lipases from Rhizomucor miehei (Lipozyme IM) and Candida antarctica (Novozym 435) as catalysts. Chemical interesterifications were carried out at 60 and 90 °C for 0.5 and 1.5 h using 0.4, 0.6 and 1.0 wt‐% CH₃ONa. Enzymatic interesterifications were carried out at 60 °C for 8 h with Lipozyme IM or at 80 °C for 4 h with Novozym 435. The biocatalyst doses were kept constant (8 wt‐%), but the water content was varied from 2 to 10 wt‐%. The starting mixture and the interesterified products were separated by column chromatography into a pure triacylglycerol fraction and a nontriacylglycerol fraction, which contained free fatty acids, mono‐, and diacylglycerols. It was found that the concentration of free fatty acids and partial acylglycerols increased after interesterification. The slip melting points and solid fat contents of the triacylglycerol fractions isolated from interesterified fats were lower compared with the nonesterified blends. The sn‐2 and sn‐1,3 distribution of fatty acids in the TAG fractions before and after interesterification were determined. These distributions were random after chemical interesterification and near random when Novozym 435 was used. When Lipozyme IM was used, the fatty acid composition at the sn‐2 position remained practically unchanged, compared with the starting blend. The interesterified fats and isolated triacylglycerols had reduced oxidative stabilities, as assessed by Rancimat induction times. Addition of 0.02% BHA and BHT to the interesterified fats improved their stabilities.