Laboratory tests on the engineering properties of sensor-enabled geobelts (SEGB)

To measure geosynthetic reinforcement strains, sensor-enabled geobelts (SEGB) that perform the reinforcement and self-measurement functions were developed in this paper. The SEGB of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) filled with carbon black (CB) were fabricated by both the industry and the laboratory. To study the mechanical properties and tensoresistivity performance of the SEGB, in-isolation tests and in-soil tests were performed. Hot pyrocondensation pipes (HPP) were used to protect the SEGB against the influence of water. For the SEGB specimens developed in the laboratory, the optimal CB filler content was 47.5%. For the SEGB fabricated by the industry, the optimal CB content was slightly decreased compared to the SEGB fabricated in the laboratory. For the modified SEGB sealed with HPP, the strain at the fracture was improved, while its tensile stress and the frictional property of the geobelt-soil interfaces both decreased slightly. In the pull-out tests, the self-measurement function of the SEGB was proved to be effective for evaluating the deformation behavior of geosynthetic reinforcement. The results are helpful for further application of SEGB technology in engineering.     

Experimental and numerical analysis of large scale pull out tests conducted on clays reinforced with geogrids encapsulated with coarse material

The pullout test is one of the methods commonly used to study pullout behavior of reinforcements. In the current research, large pullout tests (i.e. 100 × 60 × 60 cm) have been conducted to investigate the possibility of pullout resistance enhancement of clays reinforced with HDPE geogrid embedded in thin layers of sand. Pullout tests on clay–geogrid, sand–geogrid and clay–sand–geogrid samples have been conducted at normal pressures of 25, 50 and 100 kPa. Numerical modeling using finite element method has also been used to assess the adequacy of the box and geogrid sizes to minimize boundary and scale effects. Experimental results show that provision of thin sand layers around the reinforcement substantially enhances pullout resistance of clay soil under monotonic loading conditions and the effectiveness increases with increase in normal pressures. The improvement is more pronounced at higher normal pressures and an optimum sand layer thickness of 8 cm has been determined for maximum enhancement. Results of numerical analysis showed the adequacy of the box and geogrid length adopted as well as a relatively good agreement with experimental results.     

Pullout tests conducted on clay reinforced with geogrid encapsulated in thin layers of sand

The interaction between reinforcement and backfill materials is a significant factor for analysis and design of reinforced earth structures which is simplified as pullout or direct shear resistance. This paper presents the results of pullout tests aimed at studying the interaction of clays reinforced with geogrids embedded in thin layers of sand. Pullout tests were conducted after modification of the large direct shear apparatus. Samples were prepared at optimum moisture content and maximum dry densities obtained from standard Proctor compaction tests. Tests were conducted on clay-geogrid, sand-geogrid and clay-sand-geogrid samples. A unidirectional geogrid with sand layer thicknesses of 6, 10 and 14 mm were used. Results revealed that encapsulating geogrids in thin layers of sand under pullout conditions enhances pullout resistance of reinforced clay. For the clay-sand-geogrid samples an optimum sand layer thickness of 10 mm was determined, resulting in maximum pullout resistance which increased with increasing confining pressure. The optimum sand layer thickness was the same for all the normal pressures investigated. For sandy soils the passive earth pressure offered the most pullout resistance, whereas for clayey soils, it was replaced by frictional resistance. It is anticipated that provision of thin sand layers will provide horizontal drainage preventing pore pressure built up in clay backfills on saturation.     

Effects of transverse members on geogrid pullout behavior considering rigid and flexible top boundaries

Geogrid pullout tests have been regarded as the most direct and effective way to describe the interfacial behavior between geogrid and soil. To investigate the coupled effects of geogrid transverse members and top-loading boundaries on the geogrid-soil interaction, numerical simulations of geogrid pullout tests using the Discrete Element Method (DEM) were carried out in this study. The rigid top boundary was simulated by a rigid wall, while the flexible top boundary was modeled with a string of bonded particles that could rotate and move up and down freely. The coupled effects of geogrid transverse members and top boundary conditions on the geogrid-soil interaction under pullout loads were visualized not only by the force distributions along the geogrids and in the specimens but also by the displacements of soil particles and geogrids. Additionally, the quantitative geogrid force and strain distributions along the geogrids, the lateral force distributions on the front walls, and the vertical displacements of top boundaries also showed the influence of transverse members on the geogrid pullout behavior considering the rigid and flexible top boundaries. The DEM investigation results of this study may provide helpful guidelines for regulating the geogrid pullout test apparatus and methods.     

Pullout tests on diagonally enhanced geocells embedded in sand to improve load-deformation response subjected to significant planar tensile loads

This paper presents pullout test results on conventional (ordinary) and diagonally enhanced geocells under surcharge pressures of 3, 13, 23 and 33 kPa. Extensive pullout tests on scaled geocells embedded in silica sand are performed to investigate the effects of improvements on load-deformation response, strength and stiffness. Conventional web-shaped geocells are having a small stiffness when subjected to planar tension attributed to deformability of webs. Therefore, conventional geocells may not function properly when subjected to tensile forces along the main plane in service. A special geocell is fabricated in this study, similar to tendoned geocells, through adding diagonal members along the induced tensile load to overcome the shortcomings of conventional geocells. The test results have shown that both the stiffness and ultimate resistance of the diagonally enhanced geocells have significantly improved with respect to the conventional ones. Afterwards, three experiments were carried out on a small-scale shallow footing resting on sand reinforced with geocells, indicating improvement in bearing capacity as well as load-settlement response of footings supported by the diagonally enhanced geocells as compared to conventional geocells.     

Pullout behaviour of cellular reinforcements

Reinforcements like bars, strips, textiles and grids are used for the reinforcement of soil walls in the modern era of civil engineering, but the use of cellular type of reinforcements is still under consideration and there is still a need of study the probable use of cellular reinforcement in reinforced soil retaining walls. Pullout test is commonly used to predict actual field pullout behaviour of reinforcements. In this paper, laboratory pullout tests are carried out with different height of cellular reinforcements along with planar sheet reinforcement, under two different normal pressures of 75 kPa and 100 kPa. Dimension optimization analysis for cellular reinforcement is done and longitudinal spacing to height ratio of 3.3 is found as optimum. Finite element method is used to compare the experimental pullout behaviour and found in good accord with the laboratory test results. Experimental results are also compared to the theoretical analysis. It is found that the interference in between transverse member is increasing with increase in height of cellular reinforcement, yet the ultimate pullout resistance is found more with higher reinforcement heights, for spacing to height ratio greater than 3.3.     

柔性与硬性地工格网在砂土与风化泥岩围压下之力学特性

地工格网（以下称格网）用於加劲土壤时，除考虑无围压下的张力行为之外，围压下之力学性质更是设计考量的重点。实际工程应用而言，基於经济考虑，期以现地土壤作为回填材料。本研究分别以拉出、围压抗张与直剪三种试验来探讨格网放土壤中之力学行为；并利用凝聚性泥岩与非凝聚性细砂作为回填材料，评估两种回填材料对加劲成效之影响。结果显示，柔性格网之肋条在拉出过程中易扭曲，造成主应力面旋转的现象，以致拉出阻抗大放硬性格网；围压下格网抗张的应力-应变行为可分为三阶段，即束制阻抗期、张力发展期与破坏期。束制阻抗期大都於3％应变内即已完成；在低围压情况拉出阻抗达20％～60％之拉出强度（相同应变），在高围压下达150％。由直接剪力试验结果可以预测：（a）格网／泥岩加劲结构-低围压时，剪力破坏面应通过格网／泥岩之界面；而高围压时，剪力破坏面应通过泥岩上体。（b）格网／细砂加劲结构-低围压与高围压下剪力破坏面应通过格网／细砂之界面。     

Pullout testing and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) analysis of geogrid reinforcement embedded in granular drainage layers

The paper investigates the feasibility of using fine-grained soil as backfill material of geosynthetic-reinforced walls and slopes, through a laboratory study on pullout behavior of geogrids in granular layers. A series of pullout tests was carried out on an HDPE uniaxial geogrid in thin sand and gravel layers that were embedded in clay specimens.Aside from different soil arrangements, the influences of moisture content and overburden pressure on the geogrid pullout behavior is assessed and discussed. The tests were carried out at four different gravimetric water contents (GWC) on the dry and wet sides of the clay optimum moisture content (OMC), and overburden pressure values within the range σ_v = 25–100 kPa. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was used to capture digital images during the tests, which were processed to help with the interpretation and improved understanding of the soil-geogrid interactions at different GWC values. Results show that embedding geogrid reinforcement in layers of sand or gravel can significantly increase the pullout resistance in an otherwise moist clay backfill, and this improved pullout efficiency is greater at higher overburden pressures. The improvement in pullout capacity was observed in clay specimens compacted at both the dry and wet sides of the OMC.     

土工格栅纵横肋的筋土承载特性分析

为研究土工格栅纵横肋与砂土的界面受力特性,进行了不同法向压力的格栅拉拔试验,分别设计了横向与纵向剪除横肋的6种拉拔试验工况,研究横肋减少对格栅受力、拉拔阻力峰值和位移及似摩擦系数的影响,并分别对比了整体剪切和刺入剪切破坏模式下的格栅拉拔阻力,揭示格栅筋土界面的相互作用机理。结果表明,随着横肋的减少,格栅拉拔阻力和似摩擦系数不断地变小;横肋沿横向减少的格栅最大拉拔阻力大于横肋沿纵向减少的最大拉拔阻力,完整横肋有助于筋土界面的加筋作用的充分发挥。理论计算格栅界面摩擦力约为18%~19%的试验拉拔阻力,而试验获得的格栅界面摩擦力与试验拉拔阻力的比值为29%~33%,横肋与土体挤压咬合产生的承载力分量占了总拉拔阻力的67%~71%,横肋极大提高了土工格栅的拉拔阻力。     

低超载下条带式带齿加筋界面特性

在提出立体加筋的基础上,对条带式带齿加筋砂土进行了低超载下大量的拉拔试验来研究筋土的界面特性,分析了带齿筋的条带式加筋对拉拔性能的影响,探讨了不同上层覆压下筋条的拉拔力与水平位移的关系以及似摩擦系数f*的变化规律。在试验成果分析的基础上,分析了条带式带齿加筋与砂土的相互作用机理,建立了条带式带齿加筋砂土的拉拔力模型。并将试验结果与理论值比较,二者基本吻合。     

Surface wave propagation effects on buried segmented pipelines

This paper deals with surface wave propagation(WP) effects on buried segmented pipelines. Both simplified analytical model and finite element(FE) model are developed for estimating the axial joint pullout movement of jointed concrete cylinder pipelines(JCCPs) of which the joints have a brittle tensile failure mode under the surface WP effects. The models account for the effects of peak ground velocity(PGV), WP velocity, predominant period of seismic excitation, shear transfer between soil and pipelines,axial stiffness of pipelines, joint characteristics, and cracking strain of concrete mortar. FE simulation of the JCCP interaction with surface waves recorded during the 1985 Michoacan earthquake results in joint pullout movement, which is consistent with the field observations. The models are expanded to estimate the joint axial pullout movement of cast iron(CI) pipelines of which the joints have a ductile tensile failure mode. Simplified analytical equation and FE model are developed for estimating the joint pullout movement of CI pipelines. The joint pullout movement of the CI pipelines is mainly affected by the variability of the joint tensile capacity and accumulates at local weak joints in the pipeline.     

水泥固化滨海风积砂力学特性试验及细观数值仿真

滨海风积砂因结构松散、自稳能力差、级配不良不易压实,被视为一种特殊土。水泥固化是常用的加固手段,而水泥剂量对风积砂力学性能的影响规律及细观作用机制目前尚不清楚。利用GDS土工三轴试验仪,对不同水泥剂量(0%,4%,6%)的水泥固化滨海风积砂进行不同有效围压(50,100,150 k Pa)下的CD试验。结合室内试验数据和水泥砂样显微照片,建立水泥固化滨海风积砂细观结构的颗粒流PFC2D模型,进行三轴试验的细观数值仿真分析。研究结果表明,水泥固化滨海风积砂应力–应变关系呈应变软化型,水泥剂量对滨海风积砂强度贡献明显,对体变影响相对较小。采用颗粒平行黏结方式的颗粒流数值仿真能有效反映水泥固化滨海风积砂的细观力学特性,水泥剂量对水泥固化滨海风积砂的黏结破坏数、配位数、位移场均有显著影响。     

密砂中圆形锚上拔承载力尺寸效应分析

通过模型试验和有限单元法分析了密砂中圆形锚板上拔承载力的尺寸效应问题。分别对直径为20,50,400 mm的锚板在埋深比为2～6时进行拉拔试验,获得上拔力和位移关系曲线及极限上拔力。基于不同埋深比时板径与上拔承载力系数关系曲线,可发现:相同埋深比时,随着锚板直径增加,上拔承载力系数逐渐减小;且随着埋深比增加,此现象愈明显。考虑密砂强度随应变发展而出现的软化现象,对理想弹塑性Mohr-Coulomb模型进行改进,基于改进的模型对上述12个拉拔试验进行有限元数值模拟,同时与理想弹塑性模型模拟结果进行比较。结果表明:理想弹塑性模型严重高估锚板上拔承载力,而考虑土体软化的模型能够模拟锚板上拔过程中破坏面上土体强度逐渐发挥的过程,计算得到的极限承载力与试验结果吻合较好。尺寸效应产生的原因一方面由于应力水平对土体强度的影响,另一方面由渐进破坏引起;埋深比越大,随着锚板直径增加,周围土体依次进入破坏的过程愈加明显。     

Model tests of geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls with marginal backfill subjected to rainfall

A series of model tests were conducted to investigate the performance of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls with marginal backfill subjected to rainfall infiltration. The effectiveness of improvement measures—such as decreasing reinforcement spacing and increasing sand cushion thickness—to prevent the GRS wall failure due to heavy rainfall was evaluated. The distribution and variation of the volumetric water content, porewater pressure, wall deformation, and reinforcement tensile strain were monitored during the test. The advancement of the wetting front and the drainage function of sand cushions were visually observed using the fluorescent dyeing technique. For the baseline case, the wall began to deform as rainfall proceeded, causing the potential failure surface to gradually move backward. When the potential failure surface moved beyond the reinforced zone, the pullout of the topmost reinforcement layers occurred, resulting in the collapse of the GRS wall in a compound failure mode. Decreases in reinforcement spacing and increases in sand cushion thickness effectively reduced wall deformation and enhanced wall stability. The placing of sand cushions between the reinforcement layers can also delay water infiltration and reduce the accumulation of porewater pressure inside the wall. Suggestions for designing rain-resistant GRS walls are also proposed based on the findings.     

冻融循环下粉砂土屈服及强度特性的试验研究

为研究冻融循环对青藏粉砂土屈服及强度特性的影响,进行环境冷却温度-5℃、室温下融化,不同冻融循环次数及围压下的饱和粉砂土的固结排水三轴剪切试验。结果表明:粉砂土在整个剪切过程中呈现出剪缩的特性,且其应力–应变关系为应变硬化型,冻融循环未改变粉砂土的应力–应变及体变型式。未冻融粉砂土的体积屈服面和剪切屈服面可分别用椭圆型曲线和过原点的线性函数进行描述。冻融循环未改变粉砂土屈服面的形状,且冻融粉砂的体积屈服函数及剪切函数与塑性应变和冻融循环次数的关系可用相应的幂函数形式进行表示。其抗剪强度随着法向应力的增大而增大,随着冻融循环次数呈现出先降低后升高的趋势。冻融循环后,粉砂的黏聚力由4.82 k Pa降至2.07 k Pa,而内摩擦角则由27.11°最低降至22.93°。根据不同冻融循环次数下粉砂强度随法向应力的变化规律,指出可用线性莫尔–库仑准则来描述其强度特性。     

The Mechanics of Inflatable Anchors in Cohesionless Soil

This paper describes an investigation into the performance and pullout capacity of an inflatable anchor system. The anchor system comprises a hydraulically inflated rubber membrane or packer that may be bored into place and then inflated to provide pullout resistance. A series of scaled physical model tests were used to study the anchor performance and pullout capacity. The model tests were done in a calibration chamber using cohesionless sand and anchors of various length, diameter, embedment depth and inflation pressure. The anchor behaviour during pullout is interpreted using finite element analysis that accounts for non-linear soil behaviour, inflation and subsequent deformation of the inflatable membrane, and anchor-soil interaction. The scaled model tests and interpretations assist with identifying the dominant mechanisms affecting the pullout capacity of inflatable anchor systems.     

三维离散颗粒单元模拟无黏性土的工程力学性质

基于三维离散单元颗粒流理论,引入了在极限剪力状态下颗粒间可以发生滑动的接触本构模型,建立颗粒体试样,并赋予颗粒相应的细观结构参数进行无黏结摩擦材料的三维应力应变数值模拟。通过大量的颗粒流数值试验,从细观力学角度对砂土的工程力学特性进行了初步的模拟研究。对砂土的室内常规三轴试验及其剪切带形成和发展进行了数值模拟,分别对比了不同围压下三维颗粒体试样与室内三轴的应力应变关系曲线,基本再现了试样的加载曲线。通过进一步分析颗粒细观结构参数变化对组成材料的宏观力学的影响及其剪切位移场的形成和发展规律,结果表明颗粒介质之间的摩擦系数、颗粒组成材料的孔隙率对材料的宏观力学行为有比较明显的影响。研究的意义在于理想的颗粒流数值模拟试验能够突破常规的室内土工试验能力及其局限性,对于砂土的细观结构的影响研究成为可能,并且揭示了微观的一些规律,对今后的岩土工程的颗粒模拟提供了有价值的参考。     

Prediction of pullout interaction coefficient of geogrids by extreme gradient boosting model

Geogrids embedded in fill materials are checked against pullout failure through standard pullout testing methodology. The test determines the pullout interaction coefficient which is critical in fixing the embedment length of geogrids in mechanically stabilized earth walls. This paper proposes prediction of pullout interaction coefficient using data driven machine learning regression algorithms. The study primarily focusses on using extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) method for prediction. A data set containing 220 test results from the literature has been used for training and testing. Predicted results of XGBoost have been compared with the results of random forest (RF) ensemble learning based algorithm. The predictions of XGBoost model indicates 85% accuracy and that of RF model shows 77% accuracy, indicating significantly superior and robust prediction through XGBoost above RF model. The importance analysis indicates that normal stress is the most significant factor that influences the pullout interaction coefficients. Subsequently pullout tests have been performed on geogrid embedded in four different fill materials at three normal stresses. The proposed XGBoost model gives 90% accuracy in prediction of pullout interaction coefficient compared to laboratory test results. Finally, an open-source graphical user interface based on the XGBoost model has been created for preliminary estimation of the pullout interaction coefficient of geogrid at different test conditions.     

几种高硬度透明材料与砂土接触面力学特性研究

模型试验是研究砂土类相关工程问题的必要研究手段,然而试验过程中可视化窗口的边界条件对结果的影响不容忽视。调研选取6种高硬度透明材料,开展其与ISO标准砂在5种不同法向应力下的接触剪切试验,获得每种透明材料与砂土接触面的剪应力-切向位移关系以及剪切破坏强度。通过分析接触面力学特性,为平面应变试验仪器可视窗的选材提供参考。同时,通过理论研究对适合两者接触面的双曲线本构模型进行了拟合,本构模型与试验数据拟合情况较好,验证了本构模型选取的正确性,能够在砂土的受荷破坏模型数值试验的中考虑可视窗的边界条件提供接触本构。     

Model testing study on engineering performances of circular helicoid piles during the whole process of installation and bearing in sandy soil

The circular helicoid pile (CH pile) is a new type of special-shaped pile that has been developed in Japan and South Korea in the past decade and has been widely used in the fields of construction, transportation, natural energy and agriculture due to its excellent compressive and pullout bearing performances. Consequently, this new type of pile has good engineering application prospects. However, as an innovative engineering structure, the CH pile is not widely known by geotechnical engineers worldwide. The geometric structure of the CH pile is similar to a circular helicoid in differential geometry. Therefore, the pile-soil interaction problem cannot be reduced to a plane strain problem or an axisymmetric problem in theoretical research. In view of this, dry silica sand was used as the model foundation in this study, and a model test device and method that can effectively reflect the installation process and loading-bearing service state of CH piles were developed. Under different installation methods, pile structures and foundation soil conditions, 90 model tests were carried out to evaluate the engineering performances of CH piles during the whole process of installation and bearing, including the installation performances during the installation process, the compressive bearing performances under axial compressive loading and the pullout bearing performances under axial pullout loading. Compared with steel sheet piles and steel pipe piles, CH piles have better engineering performance and more economic benefits from the aspects of installation, construction, recycling, timeliness of engineering application, and the relative relationship between bearing capacity and pile mass.