Appropriate technologies for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen fuel

Appropriate technology for energy supply requires the use of the most effective energy resources and conversion technologies that will also result in the minimum acceptable impact upon the environment. A useful parameter for evaluation of energy resources for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen fuel is the specific energy of the appropriate energy resources. Available resources for such large-scale applications must come from some mixture of renewable, fossil, and nuclear energy. Analysis is made of the appropriate use of solar energy, chemical combustion fuels, and nuclear energy on the basis of their specific energy. The results show that the most appropriate resources for large-scale production of electricity and hydrogen are low-specific solar photovoltaic and wind turbine energy for large numbers of distributed small-scale applications and high-specific nuclear energy for smaller numbers of large-scale applications.     

Renewable electrolytic hydrogen potential in Algeria

The present paper deals with the assessment of the renewable hydrogen production potential in Algeria. The studied system produces hydrogen by electrolysis of water; electricity is supplied by a photovoltaic generator. Adequate mathematical models were used to calculate the electrolytic hydrogen production. Detailed hourly simulations were used to assess the potential for the entire country and to draw it maps. Throughout this study, the influence of the tilt angle of a photovoltaic generator has been investigated. It has been observed that the tilt angle has an impact on solar energy received by the photovoltaic generator, the produced solar electrical power and the rate of hydrogen production. We have calculated the optimal angles to maximize each element. We were particularly interested in the optimal angle to maximize hydrogen production. We found that the solar hydrogen potential for Algeria varies from 0.10 Nm³/m²/d to 0.14 Nm³/m²/d. This potential is quite significant, especially in the arid region of southeastern Algeria. The lowest potential is located in the northeast region. For stand-alone systems, it is important to assess the minimum available level, as their sizing takes into account the most unfavorable case. This level is between 0.07 Nm³/m²/d and 0.13 Nm³/m²/d. This shows that, even for a stand-alone system, the potential is quite high. Finally, we provide robust correlations that allow calculating the potential and the angle of inclination maximizing it for the whole of Algeria.     

Assessment of solar and wind energy as motive for potential hydrogen production of Algeria country; development a methodology for uses hydrogen-based fuel cells

This study is based on method of storing the part of renewable energy in the hydrogen form for using in a fuel cell at the absence of solar radiation due to overcast day or in the night. In addition, the system advantage don't need a batteries compared with other systems. The present work is compared energy potential of the wind and solar with the results of hydrogen production and to address the various obstacles to study and evaluation. This work is assessment the renewable resources in various sites of Algeria, especially in Adrar area which is one regions of the high solar energy in the world, where the radiation rates exceed more than $2300kWh/m^2$ per year, the area is also characterized by high wind power. In fact, by these two energy sources (solar and wind) that it characterized by Adrar, it's interesting to combine electrical producing energy and hydrogen production. The studies indicate that there are the meteorological factors related to the nature of site (irradiation, temperature and wind speed) are linked to the generation of electricity by renewable energy. The results obtained showing that the hydrogen production related to the solar radiation values, where southern of Algeria has more hydrogen potential compared with the northern. The simulation results show that the energy supplied by a photovoltaic module type UDTS 50 can supply energy for ten electrolyzer cells which are connected in series with this module.     

An analysis of hydrogen production from renewable electricity sources

Three aspects of producing hydrogen via renewable electricity sources are analyzed to determine the potential for solar and wind hydrogen production pathways: a renewable hydrogen resource assessment, a cost analysis of hydrogen production via electrolysis, and the annual energy requirements of producing hydrogen for refueling. The results indicate that ample resources exist to produce transportation fuel from wind and solar power. However, hydrogen prices are highly dependent on electricity prices. For renewables to produce hydrogen at $2 kg⁻¹, using electrolyzers available in 2004, electricity prices would have to be less than $0.01 kWh⁻¹. Additionally, energy requirements for hydrogen refueling stations are in excess of 20 GWh/year. It may be challenging for dedicated renewable systems at the filling station to meet such requirements. Therefore, while plentiful resources exist to provide clean electricity for the production of hydrogen for transportation fuel, challenges remain to identify optimum economic and technical configurations to provide renewable energy to distributed hydrogen refueling stations.     

Electromagnetic transients in the control system of output parameters of a solar power plant in Tajikistan Central Asia region

At present, as the demand for electricity increases in all sectors, there is an urgent need to introduce alternative renewable energy sources into modern energy systems. Renewable energy sources, which consist of solar (photovoltaic, PV), wind and hydro power, are key alternative sources of “green energy’’ energies, but it can also be used to produce “green” hydrogen. Thanks to scientific and technological progress, the cost of photovoltaic solar radiation converters is constantly decreasing at a high rate, which makes it possible to build solar power plants of sufficiently large capacity. In the coming decades, solar energy will become an incentive for the economic development of countries that have the maximum “solar” resource. The Republic of Tajikistan is one of these countries with a high potential for solar energy.The article presents an analysis of the resources and potential of solar energy in the Republic of Tajikistan. The study of electromagnetic transients in networks with photovoltaic solar power plants is performed. The main equations, simulation model and calculations of transients are presented, taking into account changes in voltage on DC buses. An algorithm for controlling the system of automatic control of output parameters is proposed. The analysis of dynamic and static modes in parallel operation of a solar power plant with the grid is carried out. A block diagram and computer model is constructed in the MATLAB package together with Simulink and Power System Blockset.     

Steps toward the hydrogen economy

The hydrogen economy is defined as the industrial system in which one of the universal energy carriers is hydrogen (the other is electricity) and hydrogen is oxidized to water that may be reused by applying an external energy source for dissociation of water into its component elements hydrogen and oxygen. There are three different primary energy-supply system classes which may be used to implement the hydrogen economy, namely, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas, and as yet largely unused supplies such as shale oil, oil from tar sands, natural gas from geo-pressured locations, etc.), nuclear reactors including fission reactors and breeders or fusion nuclear reactors over the very long term, and renewable energy sources (including hydroelectric power systems, wind-energy systems, ocean thermal energy conversion systems, geothermal resources, and a host of direct solar energy-conversion systems including biomass production, photovoltaic energy conversion, solar thermal systems, etc.). Examination of present costs of hydrogen production by any of these means shows that the hydrogen economy favored by people searching for a non-polluting gaseous or liquid energy carrier will not be developed without new discoveries or innovations. Hydrogen may become an important market entry in a world with most of the electricity generated in nuclear fission or breeder reactors when high-temperature waste heat is used to dissociate water in chemical cycles or new inventions and innovations lead to low-cost hydrogen production by applying as yet uneconomical renewable solar techniques that are suitable for large-scale production such as direct water photolysis with suitably tailored band gaps on semiconductors or low-cost electricity supplies generated on ocean-based platforms using temperature differences in the tropical seas.     

Algerian renewable energy assessment: The challenge of sustainability

Algeria plays a very important role in world energy markets, both as a significant hydrocarbon producer and as an exporter, as well as a key participant in the renewable energy market. Due to its geographical location, Algeria holds one of the highest solar potentials in the world. This paper presents a review of the present renewable energy situation and assesses present and future potential of renewable energy sources (RESs) in Algeria. This paper also discusses the trends and expectation in solar systems applications and the aspects of future implementation of renewable energies in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region status. The problem related to the use of RES and polices to enhance the use of these sources are also analysed in this paper. In addition the available capacity building, the technical know-how for each RES technology and localizing manufacturing of renewable energy equipments are defined. The co-importance of both policy and technology investments for the future Algerian markets of RES and competitiveness of the solar/wind approach is emphasized. Some examples of policy significantly impacting Algerian markets are reviewed, and the intention of the new Algerian RES initiative is discussed.     

The hydrogen economy is complementary and synergetic to the electric economy

There is growing support to electrifying our economy by getting off of fossil fuels by producing renewable energy by wind and solar photovoltaic plants and using batteries to balance production and demand or to store energy onboard vehicles that cannot move along electric lines. Unfortunately, this proposal is pushed forward negating the value of hydrogen as an energy store. As here commented, the hydrogen economy is not competitive, but complementary and synergetic to the electric economy, and both should be promoted together to secure a faster transition towards a CO₂ emission-free economy.     

Resource assessment for green hydrogen production in Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has long been regarded as a major exporter of fossil fuel energy. As the global energy sector is undergoing an unprecedented transition to low-carbon solutions, new emerging energy technologies, such as hydrogen production, require more different resource bases than present energy technologies. Kazakhstan needs to consider whether it has enough resources to stay competitive in energy markets undergoing an energy transition. Green hydrogen can be made from water electrolysis powered by low-carbon electricity sources such as wind turbines and solar panels. We provided the first resource assessment for green hydrogen production in Kazakhstan by focusing on three essential resources: water, renewable electricity, and critical raw materials. Our estimations showed that with the current plan of Kazakhstan to keep its water budget constant in the future, producing 2–10 Mt green hydrogen would require reducing the water use of industry in Kazakhstan by 0.6–3% or 0.036–0.18 km³/year. This could be implemented by increasing the share of renewables in electricity generation and phasing out some of the water- and carbon-intensive industries. Renewable electricity potential in South and West Kazakhstan is sufficient to run electrolyzers up to 5700 and 1600 h/year for wind turbines and solar panels, respectively. In our base case scenario, 5 Mt green hydrogen production would require 50 GW solar and 67 GW wind capacity, considering Kazakhstan's wind and solar capacity factors. This could convert into 28,652 tons of nickel, 15,832 tons of titanium, and many other critical raw materials. Although our estimations for critical raw materials were based on limited geological data, Kazakhstan has access to the most critical raw materials to support original equipment manufacturers of low-carbon technologies in Kazakhstan and other countries. As new geologic exploration kicks off in Kazakhstan, it is expected that more deposits of critical raw materials will be discovered to respond to their potential future needs for green hydrogen production.     

Levelized costs of energy and hydrogen of wind farms and concentrated photovoltaic thermal systems. A case study in Morocco

This work deals with the evaluation of levelized costs of energy and hydrogen of wind farms and concentrated photovoltaic thermal systems. The production of hydrogen is ensured by an alkaline water electrolyser supplied by the electric current generated by the renewable energy sources. The study is carried out on the basis of meteorological data from the Tangier region, in Morocco. Mathematical models are developed to assess the performance and efficiency of renewable sources in terms of energy and hydrogen production for different installed powers. The comparison between the current results and those of previous work shows that the discrepancy did not exceed 6% for both electrical and thermal efficiency of the concentrated photovoltaic/thermal system. The results show that the energy consumption ratios of the electrolyzer are 61 and 64 kWh.kg⁻¹ for wind and solar energy, respectively. Wind and solar hydrogen production efficiencies are also 66 and 62%, respectively. Results show that levelized costs of energy and hydrogen decrease with the increase in installed wind and photovoltaic capacity. The overall results also show that the Tangier region can produce energy and hydrogen at low cost using wind energy compared to concentrated photovoltaic installations. For the hybridization of the two green sources studied, this is highly recommended provided that the capacity of the electrolyzer to be installed is optimal in order to effectively improve the production of hydrogen.     

Potential of renewable hydrogen production for energy supply in Hong Kong

Hong Kong is highly vulnerable to energy and economic security due to the heavy dependence on imported fossil fuels. The combustion of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental pollution. Therefore, it is important to explore the opportunities for clean renewable energy for long-term energy supply. Hong Kong has the potential to develop clean renewable hydrogen energy to improve the environmental performance. This paper reviews the recent development of hydrogen production technologies, followed by an overview of the renewable energy sources and a discussion about potential applications for renewable hydrogen production in Hong Kong. The results show that although renewable energy resources cannot entirely satisfy the energy demand in Hong Kong, solar energy, wind power, and biomass are available renewable sources for significant hydrogen production. A system consisting of wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) panels coupled with electrolyzers is a promising design to produce hydrogen. Biomass, especially organic waste, offers an economical, environmental-friendly way for renewable hydrogen production. The achievable hydrogen energy output would be as much as 40% of the total energy consumption in transportation.     

Nanocrystalline solar cells

The quality of human life depends to a large degree on the availability of energy sources. The present worldwide energy consumption exceeds already the level of 6000 Gigawatt. It is expected to further increase sharply from the rising demand of energy in the developing countries. This implies enhanced depletion of fossil fuel reserves. leading to further aggravation of the environmental pollution exerting adverse effects on the well being of man kind. Adding the dangers arising from the accumulation of plutonium fission products from nuclear reactors, the quality of life on earth is threatened unless renewable energy resources can be developed in the near future. Photovoltaics is expected to make important contributions to identify environmentally friendly solutions of the energy problem. One attractive strategy discussed in this lecture is the development of systems that mimic natural photosynthesis in the conversion solar energy for the fixation of carbon dioxide. The task to be accomplished by these systems is to harvest sun light to produce electricity or drive an uphill chemical reaction, such as the cleavage of water into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen can be subsequently employed to reduce carbon dioxide to produce fuels and chemical feed stocks. Learning from the concepts used by green plants we have developed a molecular photovoltaic device whose overall efficiency for solar energy conversion to electricity has already attained 10%.. The system is based on the sensitization of nanocrystalline films by transition metal charge transfer sensitizers. In analogy to photosynthesis, the new chemical solar cell achieves the separation of light absorption and charge carrier transport. Extraordinary yields for the conversion of incident photons into electric current are obtained, exceeding 90% for transition metal complexes within the wavelength range of their absorption band. Conventional photovoltaic cells for solar energy conversion into electricity are solid state devices do not economically compete for base load utility electricity production. The low cost and ease of production of the new nanocrystalline cell should be benefit large scale applications in particular in underdeveloped or developing countries. These regions of the earth benefit from generous sun shine rendering the availability of a cheap solar cell technology important in view of improving the quality of life and preserving natural resources. Quite aside from its intrinsic merits as a photovoltaic device, the nanocrystalline films development opens up a whole number of additional avenues for energy storage ranging from intercalation batteries to the formation of chemical fuels. These nanocrystalline systems will undoubtedly promote the acceptance of renewable energy technologies, not least by setting new standards of convenience and economy.     

Review of wind energy use in Algeria

Most scientists now agree that human-induced global climate change poses a serious threat to both society and the Earth's ecosystems. Renewable energy holds the key to future prosperity and a healthy global environment and is considered as a promising way to solve the problem of environmental pollution such as major environmental accidents, water pollution, maritime pollution, land use and sitting impact, radiation and radioactivity, solid waste disposal, hazardous air pollutants, ambient air quality (CO, CO₂, SO_x, NO_x effluent gas emissions), acid rain, stratospheric ozone depletion, and global warming (GHG). Solar, wind and hydrogen power can be considered as potential renewable energy sources in Algeria. The share of renewable energy sources in Algeria primary energy supply is relatively low compared with European countries, though the trends of development are positive. One of the main strategic priorities of New Energy Algeria (NEAL) which is Algeria's renewable energy agency (government, Sonelgaz and Sonatrach), is striving to achieve a share of renewable energy sources in primary energy supply of 10–12% by 2010. IEA projects that the fastest growing sources of energy will be supplied by renewables. Much of this capacity will be installed in developing nations where solar and wind electric power is already competitive. Clearly, the nation that can capture a leadership position has potential for substantial economic returns. The article presents a review of the present wind energy situation and assessed potential of wind energy sources in Algeria in particular the southwest region of Algeria (Adrar, Timimoun and Tindouf).     

Integration and economic viability of fueling the future with green hydrogen: An integration of its determinants from renewable economics

The volatility of fossil fuel and their increased consumption have exacerbated the socio-economic dilemma along with electricity expenses in third world countries around the world, Pakistan in particular. In this research, we study the output of renewable hydrogen from natural sources like wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power. It also provides rules and procedures in an attempt to determine the current situation of Pakistan regarding the workability of upcoming renewable energy plans. To achieve this, four main criteria were assessed and they are economic, commercial, environmental, and social adoption. The method used in this research is the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchical Process (FAHP), where we used first-order engineering equations, and Levelized cost electricity to produce renewable hydrogen. The value of renewable hydrogen is also evaluated. The results of the study indicate that wind is the best option in Pakistan for manufacturing renewable based on four criteria. Biomass is found to be the most viable raw material for the establishment of the hydrogen supply network in Pakistan, which can generate 6.6 million tons of hydrogen per year, next is photovoltaic solar energy, which has the capability of generating 2.8 million tons. Another significant finding is that solar energy is the second-best candidate for hydrogen production taking into consideration its low-cost installation and production. The study shows that the cost of using hydrogen in Pakistan ranges from $5.30/kg to $5.80/kg, making it a competitive fuel for electric machines. Such projects for producing renewable power must be highlighted and carried out in Pakistan and this will lead to more energy security for Pakistan, less use of fossil fuels, and effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.     

Sustainable energy planning based on a stand-alone hybrid renewableenergy/hydrogen power system: Application in Karpathos island, Greece

This study presents the sustainable planning of a renewables-based energy system, which aims to fulfil the electric needs of the island by replacing the existing diesel generators with new wind farms, photovoltaic installations and hydrogen production systems. Electric system design and least cost planning analysis were concluded using historic data from both demand and supply sides. An optimal “sustainable island” scheme should ensure 100% use of renewable energy resources for power generation, while hydrogen production is ideal for covering storage and transportation needs. Due to its morphology and scale, Karpathos applies perfectly for wind and solar energy systems, due to increased solar resource (about 1790 kWh/m².year of global irradiation) and high wind potential (average of 9 m/s in specific locations). Therefore, this case study examines an increase in RES penetration up to 20% in the electric energy mixture, a hydrogen production plan just for the needs of transport and a more aggressive, 100% renewables scheme that ensures a self-fulfilling energy system based on indigenous renewable resources.     

Wind energy and the hydrogen economy—review of the technology

The hydrogen economy is an inevitable energy system of the future where the available energy sources (preferably the renewable ones) will be used to generate hydrogen and electricity as energy carriers, which are capable of satisfying all the energy needs of human civilization. The transition to a hydrogen economy may have already begun. This paper presents a review of hydrogen energy technologies, namely technologies for hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and utilization. Possibilities for utilization of wind energy to generate hydrogen are discussed in parallel with possibilities to use hydrogen to enhance wind power competitiveness.     

Green hydrogen production potential for Turkey with solar energy

The current study develops a hydrogen map concept where renewable energy sources are considered for green hydrogen production and specifically investigates the solar energy-based hydrogen production potential in Turkey. For all cities in the country, the available onshore and offshore potentials for solar energy are considered for green hydrogen production. The vacant areas are calculated after deducting the occupied areas based on the available governmental data. Abundant solar energy as a key renewable energy source is exploited by photovoltaic cells. To obtain the hydrogen generation potential, monocrystalline and polycrystalline type solar cells are considered, and the generated renewable electricity is directed to electrolysers. For this purpose, alkaline, proton exchange membrane (PEM), and solid oxide electrolysers (SOEs) are considered to obtain the green hydrogen. The total hydrogen production potential for Turkey is estimated to be between 415.48 and 427.22 Million tons (Mt) depending on the type of electrolyser. The results show that Erzurum, Konya, Sivas, and Van are found to be the highest hydrogen production potentials. The main idea is to prepare hydrogen map in detail for each city in Turkey, based on the solar energy potential. This, in turn, can be considered in the context of the current policies of the local communities and policy-makers to supply the required energy of each country.     

Status and future prospects of renewable energy in Iraq

Iraq suffers from electricity shortages, and many challenges will have to be overcome to meet future increases in electrical demands. This investigation found that solar, wind and biomass energy are not being utilized sufficiently at present, but these energies could play an important role in the future of Iraq’s renewable energy. Additionally, the potential of offshore-wind energy in the Gulf (near Basrah in the southern part of Iraq) needs to be investigated. The Iraqi government's attempts to utilize renewable energy have been discussed. This paper aims to review and discuss the status and future of renewable energy in Iraq. The uses of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and biomass, have been reviewed. This paper concludes with recommendations for the utilization of these energy resources.     

Estimation of electrolytic hydrogen production potential in Venezuela from renewable energies

An initial estimation of the potential for hydrogen (H₂) production in Venezuela is made, obtained by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources, taking advantage of the great potential of the country for solar, wind and mini hydro energies. For the first two, its potential maps is obtained from insolation and wind speed maps, respectively, prepared from satellite data, and for mini-hydro, the potential is obtained from documentary information. To calculate the amount of H₂ to produce is used the Higher Heating Value, considering the electrolytic system overall efficiency of 75%, including power requirements of the electrolyzer, auxiliary equipment, and system losses. In addition, in the calculation of usable renewable potential are excluded land areas under special administration, marine, lake and urban areas, and other limitations are considered concerning energy conversion efficiencies and useful areas available for the location of the different renewable technologies.     

An evaluation of domestic solar energy potential in Taiwan incorporating land use analysis

Solar energy is widely regarded as a major renewable energy source, which in future energy systems will be able to contribute to the security of energy supply and the reduction of CO₂ emissions. This study combined an evaluation of solar energy resources in Taiwan with land use analysis, which allows the potentials and restrictions of solar energy exploitation resulting from local land use conditions to be considered. The findings unveiled in this study indicate that photovoltaic electricity generation and solar water heating have the potential of producing 36.1 and 10.2 TWh of electricity and thermal energy annually in Taiwan, accounting for 16.3% and 127.5% of the total domestic consumption of electricity and energy for household water heating in 2009, respectively. However, the exploited solar photovoltaic power generation in 2009 accounted for only 0.02% of total potential in Taiwan, while the exploited solar water heating accounted for 11.6% of total potential. Market price and investment incentive are the dominant factors that affect market acceptance of solar energy installation in Taiwan. The administrative barriers to the purchase and transmission of electricity generated from renewable energy sources have to be removed before the potential contribution of solar energy can be realized.