Electrification using solar photovoltaic systems in Nepal

Historically, the rural population of Nepal has been meeting their energy needs from traditional sources like fuel wood and other biomass resources. Only about 44% of the total population has access to grid electricity. Because of country’s rough and mountainous topography, high cost of grid extension, and low and scattered population density, constructing some big power plants (e.g. large hydropower) can not meet the electricity needs of all people, especially those living in rural areas. Distributed generation of electricity, using environment friendly solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, might be one of the reliable alternatives for urban as well as rural electrification. This article begins with a general overview of energy resources in Nepal. Present status and perspectives of solar PV sector have also been discussed. Benefit cost and breakeven analyses of solar PV systems in Nepalese urban areas have been carried out. The breakeven year has been calculated between 2027 and 2036 for PV systems with system life time between 40 and 25 years, respectively. It has been concluded that the solar PV systems are not the economic solutions for grid connected urban areas in Nepal. On the other hand, this article concludes that the rural electrification projects should not be decided on the basis of mere monetary benefits, rather many social aspects should be considered, and in this case, there are not convincing alternatives to solar PV systems for electrification in many rural villages in Nepal.     

Computer-aided analysis of the integration of renewable-energy systems in remote areas using a geographical-information system

The main objective of this project is to realize an integration plan for various renewable-energy systems in remote areas using a geographical-information system (GIS) in order to determine the optimal management and use of energy in these locations. The area studied is Corsica, an island located in the south-east of France. For the remote site considered, four systems supplying electricity are compared: a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV)/batteries system, a hybrid PV/batteries/back-up generator system, an engine generator and an extension of the existing electrical network. The most economic configuration was chosen as the best solution to electrify the remote site. Physical and technical-economical processes are integrated in the GIS. This GIS is used to determine the profitability boundaries for PV systems compared to a grid extension and under four different load profiles, and has led to the elaboration of an integration plan of renewable energies in south Corsica. The study has shown that for 60–90% of remote sites, a PV decentralized electricity system is the most economical means of electrification.     

Photovoltaic systems for distributed power supply in Nigeria

An adequate and reliable electricity supply system is essential for any developing country. This paper examines the problems in the electricity supply system in Nigeria. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are reckoned to be viable alternatives for reliable power supply, particularly for small loads in remote areas and rural communities. The status and potential of photovoltaics in Nigeria are examined, particularly for village electrification and telecommunications. Results of surveys of PV systems installed in the country are presented and policies that would encourage the dissemination of the systems are discussed.     

Field analysis of solar PV-based collective systems for rural electrification

This article analyses the long-term performance of collective off-grid photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural areas. The use of collective PV systems for the electrification of small medium-size villages in developing countries has increased in the recent years. They are basically set up as stand-alone installations (diesel hybrid or pure PV) with no connection with other electrical grids. Their particular conditions (isolated) and usual installation places (far from commercial/industrial centers) require an autonomous and reliable technology. Different but related factors affect their performance and the energy supply; some of them are strictly technical but others depend on external issues like the solar energy resource and users’ energy and power consumption. The work presented is based on field operation of twelve collective PV installations supplying the electricity to off-grid villages located in the province of Jujuy, Argentina. Five of them have PV generators as unique power source while other seven include the support of diesel groups. Load demand evolution, energy productivity and fuel consumption are analyzed. Besides, energy generation strategies (PV/diesel) are also discussed.     

Sustainability assessment of renewable energy projects for off-grid rural electrification: The Pangan-an Island case in the Philippines

Renewable energy systems (RESs) have been promoted for rural electrification as an answer to the growing energy needs of communities while simultaneously satisfying environmental and resource scarcity problems. These off-grid systems however have several challenges in the perspective of sustainability due to the technically and financially weak recipients and users of the projects. There is still, however, less detailed understanding how the technical and economic aspects of the projects can properly match the social aspects to promote sustainability. This paper aimed to further understand the challenges and social impacts of rural electrification projects using RES through a case study of a centralized off-grid solar plant in the Philippines. The study used multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) to identify essential user attributes which explain the users’ electricity consumption behaviors. The community cooperative had difficulties maintaining the facility in the long term due to financial and capacity related challenges. A holistic approach dealing with the technical, economic and social aspects in developing RES projects promote sustainability.     

Field performance of lead-acid batteries in photovoltaic rural electrification kits

A field survey was carried out in 83 rural communities within seven different states in Mexico, to assess the performance of photovoltaic (PV) rural electrification systems previously installed and to sense the degree of user satisfaction with PV technology. The present work reports on the performance of lead-acid batteries associated with domestic PV lighting kits. A sample of 555 batteries, from a total of 2512 PV kits installed in the region of study at the time of the survey, was randomly taken for analysis. Batteries were rated using a semiquantitative methodology developed at the Electrical Research Institute of Mexico (IIE). Results obtained from the survey are on the positive side, meaning that car-type batteries (representing 87% of the sample) perform reasonably well as part of PV lighting kits. However, there may be reasons for concern. A number of factors of technical, environmental and socio cultural nature, can negatively influence the performance of batteries in the field. Results from the survey show that undersized storage capacity is one of the main technical factors contributing to a rapid decrease in battery performance. However, improper operation and maintenance practices, derived from socio cultural factors and a lack of proper user training, are important recurring elements that may result in battery lifes shorter than anticipated, and the subsequent disappointment of the user with respect to PV rural electrification. Local availability of spare batteries at the rural community level is identified as one critical issue for the sustainability of massive PV rural electrification projects. Proper disposal of spent batteries is seen as a potential environmental problem requiring due consideration.     

Multi-objective optimization of batteries and hydrogen storage technologies for remote photovoltaic systems

Stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) systems comprise one of the promising electrification solutions to cover the demand of remote consumers, especially when it is coupled with a storage solution that would both increase the productivity of power plants and reduce the areas dedicated to energy production.     

Rural photovoltaic electrification program in Jordan

The photovoltaic (PV) technology potential for Jordan is high, based on the fact that many remote and isolated sites are located far away from the national electric grid and cannot be connected to it in the near future. Therefore, a rural PV electrification program—driven by quality-of-life improvement for the users—was launched in Jordan in 2002. An important element of the program is the access of low-income, rural consumers to essential electricity.This paper discusses and analyses the first stage of this program that is the electrification of a remote and small Jordanian village. Nine PV solar home systems (SHS) were installed in this village in order to provide lighting and power for radio and television.Feed back from the users of the installed systems indicates that the PV based electricity has been providing very satisfactory service to the consumers, and that it is an appropriate technology suitable for dissemination in the rural Jordanian areas.     

PV hybrid systems for rural electrification in Thailand

Photovoltaic (PV) hybrid systems can make a positive contribution to the sustainability of rural communities in developing countries that do not have access to electricity grid. Integration of solar photovoltaic system with diesel generator for remote and rural areas would assist in expanding the electricity access in the tropical region. A survey of PV hybrid system in Thailand during the last decade regarding to status of technology, performance in terms of technical and economic aspects, and their prospects has been presented in this paper.     

Economical, environmental and technical analysis of building integrated photovoltaic systems in Malaysia

Malaysia has identified photovoltaic systems as one of the most promising renewable sources. A great deal of efforts has been undertaken to promote the wide applications of PV systems. With the recent launch of a PV market induction programme known as SURIA 1000 in conjunction with other relevant activities undertaken under the national project of Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic (MBIPV), the market of PV systems begins to be stimulated in the country. As a result, a wide range of technical, environmental and economic issues with regard to the connection of PV systems to local distribution networks becomes apparent. Numerous studies were therefore carried out in collaboration with Malaysian Energy Centre to address a number of those important issues. The findings of the studies are presented in the paper and can be served as supplementary information to parties who are directly and indirectly involved in the PV sector in Malaysia.     

Solar lanterns or solar home lighting systems – Community preferences in East Timor

Access to electrification in rural areas of East Timor is extremely limited with as few as 5% of rural households connected to electricity. The government of East Timor intends to increase rural access to electricity significantly in the coming decade. The introduction of small PV systems is envisaged for many households in the most remote areas. Several agencies have piloted the introduction of small solar home systems (SHS) and solar lanterns. In the Railaco sub-district of East Timor, some 1000 households have experience of using either SHS and/or solar lanterns and are in a unique position to indicate a preference regarding these forms of PV lighting technology. This paper reports on a survey of 76 households in Railaco investigating experience with PV lighting systems. Results of the survey indicate a strong preference by users for SHS rather than lanterns. The preference for SHS arose from a range of factors including: a perception of better light quality; ability to illuminate the whole house; reduced risk of damage to the PV equipment; and longer duration of nightly operation. The research indicates that where a single PV lighting system is provided, users are likely to prefer SHS to solar lanterns.     

A techno-economic comparison of rural electrification based on solar home systems and PV microgrids

Solar home systems are typically used for providing basic electricity services to rural households that are not connected to electric grid. Off-grid PV power plants with their own distribution network (micro/minigrids) are also being considered for rural electrification. A techno-economic comparison of the two options to facilitate a choice between them is presented in this study on the basis of annualised life cycle costs (ALCC) for same type of loads and load patterns for varying number of households and varying length and costs of distribution network. The results highlight that microgrid is generally a more economic option for a village having a flat geographic terrain and more than 500 densely located households using 3–4 low power appliances (e.g. 9 W CFLs) for an average of 4 h daily. The study analyses the viability of the two options from the perspectives of the user, an energy service company and the society.     

Technical viability of mobile solar photovoltaic systems for indigenous nomadic communities in northern latitudes

This study assesses the viability of photovoltaic (PV) technology in northern latitudes as a part of energy supply system for remote nomadic camps of indigenous communities involved in reindeer husbandry. Two boundary locations were analyzed: southern Yakutia, Russia, 56°41′N; and the northernmost area in Norway, Finnmark, 68°51′N. Sixteen scenarios were simulated based on energy consumption, light sources and electric load schedules. The results show that PV-based systems are beneficial under a variety of economic conditions and fuel prices when compared to systems solely fuel-based. Incandescent lights, which are currently common for such settlements, should be replaced with LED lighting to enable easier PV system portability by reindeer sled. For areas with significant numbers of minimal solar flux days partial load scheduling is necessary for economically viable systems. The simulations showed that the specific weight of the system (excluding support structure) measured as the system total weight to the number of camp residents ratio can be reduced by a factor of two for optimized loads to 5.8 kg/person for a low energy-intensive camps and 11.0 kg/person for a high energy intensive camps.     

Evaluation of operation characteristics in multiple interconnection of PV systems

A method for evaluating the operation characteristic of grid-connected PV systems in multiple interconnection was proposed and a suppression of PV electric energy which is reduced by an automatic voltage control unit was estimated using a yearly scale simulation. The automatic voltage control unit is one of the PV inverter functions. In Japan, PV systems must be provided with this function to maintain within 101 V±6 V for the standard voltage of 100 V according to the technical recommendations. The automatic control voltage unit adjusts the distribution-line voltage at a connected point using leading reactive power or active power. Especially, the adjustment of active power will cause a suppression of PV electric energy.     

Off-grid electrification with solar home systems: An appraisal of the quality of components

Solar home systems (SHS) are seen as an attractive option for off-grid electrification in rural areas in developing countries. The combined effect of declining photovoltaic module costs and success in micro-finance has resulted in increased SHS installations in emerging economies in Asia such as Bangladesh. Majority of the SHS components are now manufactured locally with the exception of PV cells. Considering the role of component quality in SHS performance, technical quality of four key SHS components: solar panel, battery, charge controller and lamp circuit (inverter) from market-leading manufacturers were evaluated in this study in laboratory settings, against national and international standards. All of the tested components met some evaluation criteria in their respective categories but none met all. Key performance failures were found to be related to inverter efficiency, reverse polarity protection in charge controllers and battery capacity, which are critical for optimum performance of the system. Findings in this study point towards an ineffective regulatory mechanism for quality assurance and the protection of consumer rights, which needs to be rectified for maintaining public confidence and sustaining the growth of SHS based off-grid electrification.     

Combining hydro and variable wind power generation by means of pumped-storage under economically viable terms

Pumped hydro storage (PHS) systems which are located at isolated regions and are able to exploit the rejected wind energy amounts produced by local wind farms, seem to gain interest worldwide and to become essential in regard to higher shares of renewable-generated electricity. Despite the high wind potential encountered in many Greek island regions, the wind energy contribution to the electrification of these areas is significantly restricted due to imposed electrical grid limitations. In this context, the current work examines the economic viability of a wind-based PHS system (wind-hydro solution) which provides the local electrical grid of an Aegean Sea island, Lesbos, with guaranteed energy amounts during the peak load demand periods. Based on the maximization of the project’s net present value, the optimum system configuration is proposed while many other feasible solutions are revealed. According to the results obtained the implementation of this project demonstrates excellent technical and economic performance, while at the same time renewable energy sources (RES) contribution is doubled reaching almost 20% of the Lesbos island electrical energy consumption.     

Stimulating the diffusion of photovoltaic systems: A behavioural perspective

This paper first discusses consumer motives for adopting photovoltaic systems (PV systems) from a behavioural-theoretical perspective. Different motives are discussed within a framework of underlying needs and the time sensitivity of various outcomes. Next, empirical data are presented concerning the motives of buyers of PV systems after a promotional and support campaign in the city of Groningen (the Netherlands). Financial support and general problem awareness are found to be critical motives, but the (strong) positive effects of information meetings, technical support meetings and social networks are also identified. Conclusions focus on the critical motives for adopting a PV system, and suggestions are presented concerning policy measures to stimulate the further diffusion of PV systems.     

Assesment of grid-connected photovoltaic systems in the Kuwaiti climate

Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems is one of the most promising applications of PV systems. Till now, no detailed studies have been carried out to assess the potential of grid-connected systems in Kuwait. This work investigates the feasibility of implementing grid-connected PV systems in the Kuwaiti climate. The proposed system consists of crystalline solar modules mounted on the building roof and an inverter to convert PV dc output to ac voltage. The building receives electricity from both the PV array and the utility grid. In this system, the load is the total electrical energy consumption in the building.The objective of this work is to examine the performance as well as the economic feasibility of grid-connected PV systems in the Kuwaiti climate. A program is written to evaluate the performance as well as the economic feasibility of such systems in Kuwait. The input to the program is the weather data for Kuwait, time dependent building loads, as well as the utility rates for Kuwait. Weather data generator subroutine included in the program is used to generate hourly weather conditions from the monthly average values of daily radiation on horizontal surface, and ambient temperature available for Kuwait. The five-parameter PV model, which is applicable to both crystalline and amorphous PV modules, is used to determine the performance of the solar modules used in this study.The transient simulation program ( ) is used to link the components of the grid-connected PV system together. The inverter efficiency is represented as a linear function of input power. In this case, it is assumed that the AC output from the system will never be greater than the building load. Electricity tariffs will have an important impact on the cost-effectiveness of the system studied. The tariff used for electric utility is a flat rate per unit kWh of electrical energy. Simulations of the proposed system were carried out over the academic year.The building examined in this study is a flat roof building with a single story. The building roof area is large enough so that the PV arrays can be spaced widely to minimize shading losses. Different array slopes, and azimuth angles were studied to maximize the annual energy generated by the PV modules. Finally, the economic feasibility of grid-connected PV systems in Kuwait are examined.     

The potential for integration of hydrogen for complete energy self-sufficiency in residential buildings with photovoltaic and battery storage systems

This paper presents an analysis of energy production in a pilot building located in Slovenia, which is a typical residential house with an installed photovoltaic (PV) system and pilot battery storage system. Energy management system gathers data from smart meters every 15 min. As the pilot building location is in central Europe, complete energy self-sufficiency cannot be provided. The most problematic period of energy production with photovoltaic systems is winter. Solar radiation during the winter is much lower than in the summer and sometimes snow covers photovoltaic panels and disables energy production. Energy production and energy consumption are analyzed for one year. This study shows that complete self-sufficiency can be achieved by supplementing photovoltaic systems with hydrogen fuel cells. The amount of hydrogen, which would suffice for complete self-sufficiency for the whole period, is calculated according to the analyzed data. A synergy between photovoltaic system and hydrogen fuel cells is a step forward to complete self-sufficiency with renewable energy sources. The share of self-sufficiency of a hybrid PV fuel cell system would be 62.13%, meaning that there is no possibility for complete self-sufficiency from the pilot system. The shortage of hydrogen is 144.24 kg for one year and for achieving complete energy self-sufficiency, PV system should be bigger. A hybrid system with photovoltaic system, battery storage system and hydrogen fuel cells can be a solution for complete self-sufficiency. From an economic point of view, such systems are accessible for commercial use. The initial investment is relatively high, because of the high cost of the hydrogen storage tank.