Industrial uses of palm,palm kernel and coconut oils: Nitrogen derivatives

Palm, palm kernel and coconut oils are sources of fatty acids that can be converted to other oleochemicals that have many applications. This paper describes manufacturing procedures, product characteristics and uses for many fatty acids, alcohols, primary amides, monosubstituted amides, diamides, disubstituted amides, nitrites, primary amines, secondary amines, tertiary amines, diamines, quaternary ammonium compounds, amphoterics, amine oxides and polyoxyalkylene alkylamines.     

Manufacture of palm kernel oil using the traditional coconut oil processing system

The traditional processing system of coconut oil, comprising grating of coconut meats, extraction with boiling water, cooling, followed by skimming off the cream, and heating it to dryness to give coconut oil, has been adapted for the manufacture of palm kernel oil. Palm kernels were crushed in a laboratory hammer mill, extracted with several lots of boiling water, cooled, the resulting cream skimmed off, and heated to dryness to yield palm kernel oil. A comparison of existing traditional and new adapted processing systems showed that the yield palm kernel oil obtained in both cases was about the same. Furthermore, the specific gravity, melting point, refractive index, and saponification number were similar, but the moisture content, acid value, color, and odor were dissimilar.     

Use of bleaching,clays, in processing edible oils

Bleaching of fats and oils is a process where by the clay adsorbent is mixed intimately with the oil under specified conditions to remove unwanted color bodies and other contaminants. This paper describes the process and discusses the parameters and economics involved.     

Lubrication properties of trimethylolpropane esters based on palm oil and palm kernel oils

Due to the global drive towards biodegradable products, trimethylolpropane [2‐ethyl‐2‐(hydroxymethyl)‐1, 3‐propanediol] (TMP) esters based on palm and palm kernel oils were synthesized, their lubrication properties evaluated, and their potential as base stock for biodegradable lubricants assessed. Two types of TMP esters were considered: palm kernel (PKOTE) and palm oil (PPOTE) TMP esters, derived from palm oil and palm kernel methyl esters, respectively. Lubrication properties such as viscosity, viscosity index (VI) and pour point (PP) were determined according to methods of the American Society for Testing and Materials. Wear and friction properties were evaluated using a four‐ball test machine, while oxidative stability was studied with the Penn State Micro‐oxidation thin‐film test. High VI ranges between 170 to 200 were recorded for these base stocks. PP were relatively high, between 4 to —1 °C, but were improved to at least —33 °C in high oleic palm oil TMP esters. The effects of chemical structure and impurities on wear properties and oxidative stability were also studied. The presence of methyl esters was found to improve wear, but hydroxyl groups in mono‐ and diesters had negative effects at high concentrations. Differences in chemical structures of PKOTE and PPOTE were shown to affect friction and wear results. Both base fluids exhibit oxidative stability comparable to other high oleic base fluids.     

Determination of therminol 66 heat transfer fluid in palm and coconut oils

A semiquantitative method for determination of low levels of Therminol 66 heat transfer fluid in plam and coconut oils is described. After separation of the unsaponifiable matter in the triglyceride oil, IR analysis is used to determine the fluid level utilizing representative peaks at 700 and 760 cm⁻¹.     

Present and future position of palm and palm kernel oils in world supply and trade

The major production of palm oil has shifted from Nigeria to Malaysia following the program of encouragement instituted by the Malaysian government in the 1950’s. Since then oil palm developments have risen dramatically to an estimated 6.6 million tons of palm and palm kernel oils in 1984. This is expected to expand to over 20 million tons in the year 2000. Before that time Indonesia will also become a major producer of palm oil. Palm and palm kernel oils are expected to become the major world fat and oil export, reaching 44% of world totals by 2000.     

Consistency of mixtures of cottonseed and Paraguayan palm kernel oils

Summary A palm kernel oil, mbocaya, possessing a relatively high iodine value, approximately 30, is being produced in Paraguay. Production can be expanded. One possible use for the oil is as a component of shortenings. As expected, consistency measurements showed the oil to be unsuited for conversion to shortening of the all-hydrogenated type. Blends with hydrogenated cottonseed oil yielded products having acceptable consistency characteristics. However, for a given consistency, the proportion of hydrogenated cottonseed oil needed was greater than that needed for a comparable blend with cottonseed oil. The difference was attributed to the formation of solid solutions or mixed crystals in the latter blend. A mixture of hydrogenated palm kernel oil and cottonseed oil was prepared and found to possess consistency characteristics better than those of a typical shortening of the all-hydrogenated type. Presented at the 28th Fall Meeting of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, Minneapolis, Minn., Oct. 11–13, 1954. Formerly Chief Chemist, Coindu, Asuncion, Paraguay. Sponsored by Institute of Inter-American Affairs under Point IV program. One of the laboratories of the Southern Utilization Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.     

FA and unsaponifiable composition of five Amazonian palm kernel oils

The kernel oils of five different palm species native to the Amazon basin and French Guyana were studied. Those studied were Acrocomia lasiospatha Wall., Astrocaryum vulgare C. Mart., Bactris gasipaes H.B.K., Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés, and Maximiliana maripa Drude. Lauric and myristic acids were found in all of the oils. Analysis of the unsaponifiable contents, especially the sterol and triterpene alcohol determinations, revealed the preponderance of sitosterol and the presence of two triterpene alcohols (cycloartenol and 24-methylenecycloartanol). Antioxidant (vitamin E) levels were present in small amounts, with the levels being more similar to olive than to palm oil.     

Alcoholic extraction of vegetable oils. III. Solubilities of babassu,coconut, olive,palm, rapeseed,and sunflower seed oils in aqueous ethanol

Summary Solubilities of babassu, coconut, olive, palm, rapeseed, and sunflower seed oils in aqueous alcoholic solutions at various temperatures were determined by a direct and simple method. Solubility curves for the six oils are presented. The critical solution temperatures increase with the water content of the alcohol, and in each case the relationship is linear. The pressure in the system also varies with the temperature, the maximum being about 20 p.s.i.g.     

Oxidative susceptibility of low density lipoprotein from rabbits fed atherogenic diets containing coconut,palm, or soybean oils

The oxidative susceptibilities of low density lipoproteins (LDL) isolated from rabbits fed high-fat atherogenic diets containing coconut, palm, or soybean oils were investigated. New Zealand white rabbits were fed atherogenic semisynthetic diets containing 0.5% cholesterol and either (i) 13% coconut oil and 2% corn oil (CNO), (ii) 15% refined, bleached, and deodorized palm olein (RBDPO), (iii) 15% crude palm olein (CPO), (iv) 15% soybean oil (SO), or (v) 15% refined, bleached, and deodorized palm olein without cholesterol supplementation [RBDPO(wc)], for a period of twelve weeks. Total fatty acid compositions of the plasma and LDL were found to be modulated (but not too drastically) by the nature of the dietary fats. Cholesterol supplementation significantly increased the plasma level of vitamin E and effectively altered the plasma composition of long-chain fatty acids in favor of increasing oleic acid. Oxidative susceptibilities of LDL samples were determined by Cu²⁺-catalyzed oxidation which provide the lag times and lag-phase slopes. The plasma LDL from all palm oil diets [RBDPO, CPO, and RBDPO(wc)] were shown to be equally resistant to the oxidation, and the LDL from SO-fed rabbits were most susceptible, followed by the LDL from the CNO-fed rabbits. These results reflect a relationship between the oxidative susceptibility of LDL due to a combination of the levels of polyun-saturated fatty acids and vitamin E. Based on a paper presented at the PORIM International Palm Oil Congress (PIPOC) held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1993.     

The Adsorption of β-Carotene I. by bleaching earths

Activities of various bleaching earths for removal of β-carotene from acetone solution were found to be in the decreasing order tonsil, fuller’s earth, silica, and kaolin. Experimental evidence indicated that except for silica, in addition to physical adsorption, processes involving chemisorption and subsequent chemical reaction proceeded on the surface of the clay minerals. An Arrhenius activation energy of the order of 10 kcal mol⁻¹ was found for the adsorption of β-carotene from a solution in acetone on tonsil. Metallic ions, such as Fe³⁺ , are suggested to be the active sites for chemisorption and reaction. Oxygen was not essential for activity.     

Enzymatic interesterification of palm stearin and palm kernel olein

Palm stearin (POs) and palm kernel olein (PKOo) blends were modified by enzymatic interesterification (IE) to achieve the physical properties of margarine fats. POs and PKOo are both products of the palm oil industry that presently have limited use. Rhizomucor miehei lipase (Lipozyme IM 60) was used to catalyze the interesterification of oil blends at 60°C. The progress of interesterification was monitored by following changes in triacylglyceride composition. At 60°C interesterification can be completed in 5 h. Degrees of hydrolysis obtained through IE for all blends were decreased from 2.9 to 2.0 by use of dry molecular sieves. The solid fat contents of POs/PKOo 30:70 and 70:30 interesterified blends were 9.6 and 18.1 at 20°C, and 0 and 4.1 at 35°C, respectively. The slip melting point (SMP) of POs/PKOo 30:70 was 40.0°C before interesterification and 29.9°C after IE. For POs/PKOs 70:30, SMP was 47.7 before and 37.5°C after IE. These thermal characteristics of interesterified POs/PKOo blend ratios from 30:70 to 70:30 were comparable to those of commercial margarines. Results showed that IE was effective in producing solid fats with less than 0.5% trans.     

Dehulling of palm kernel of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) to obtain superior-grade palm kernel flour and oil

A novel method has been developed for the removal of the thin, dark-brown skin, called testa, from the palm kernel of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) by chemical treatment. Studies carried out for this purpose included physical or mechanical means, dry or wet heat, solvents and other chemicals. Of the procedures tried, treatment with hydrochloric acid (HCl) resulted in complete removal of the testa, producing a pearl-white palm kernel. All other treatments were found to be ineffective. Based on our laboratory studies, semi-large-scale trials were made with 4N HCl for continuous dehulling of palm kernel in an abrasive peeling machine for the preparation of superiorgrade kernel flour and oil.     

Al2O3-supported alkali and alkali earth metal oxides for transesterification of palm kernel oil and coconut oil

Transesterification of palm kernel oil (PKO) and coconut oil (CCO) with methanol was investigated under a heterogeneous catalysis system. Various Al₂O₃-supported alkali and alkali earth metal oxides prepared via an impregnation method were applied as solid catalysts. The supported alkali metal catalysts, LiNO₃/Al₂O₃, NaNO₃/Al₂O₃ and KNO₃/Al₂O₃, with active metal oxides formed at calcination temperatures of 450–550 °C, showed very high methyl ester (ME) content (>93%). XRF analysis suggests this is likely to be due to a homogeneous catalysis of dissoluted alkali oxides. On the other hand, Ca(NO₃)₂/Al₂O₃ calcined at 450 °C yielded the ME content as high as 94% with only a small loss of active oxides from the catalyst, whereas calcined Mg(NO₃)₂/Al₂O₃ catalyst possessed an inactive magnesium-aluminate phase, resulting in very low ME formation. At calcination temperatures of >650 °C, alkali metal- and alkali earth metal-aluminate compounds were formed. Whilst the water-soluble alkali metal aluminates formed over NaNO₃/Al₂O₃ and KNO₃/Al₂O₃ were catalytically active, the aluminate compounds on LiNO₃/Al₂O₃ and Ca(NO₃)₂/Al₂O₃ are less soluble, giving very low ME content. The suitable conditions for heterogeneously catalyzed transesterification of PKO and CCO over Ca(NO₃)₂/Al₂O₃ are the methanol/oil molar ratio of 65, temperature of 60 °C and reaction time of 3 h, with 10 and 15–20% (w/w) catalyst to oil ratio for PKO and CCO, respectively. Some important physical and fuel properties of the resultant biodiesel products meet the standards of diesel fuel and biodiesel issued by Department of Energy Business, Ministry of Energy, Thailand.     

The fruit and kernel oil of the plumy coconut(Arecastrum Romanzoffianum)

Summary The nuts and oil fromArecastrum Romanzoffianum have been examined. Full-grown dried nuts from a mature tree average 23 per cent of fibrous husk, 69 per cent of shell and 8 per cent of oily kernel. The dried kernel contains about 52 per cent of oil of a non-drying character, and somewhat similar to palm kernel oil in physical properties. The chemical and physical characteristics of the kernel oil are: Sp. G. 25°/25°—0.9194; Refrac. Index N_D 20° C.—1.4580; Free Fatty Acids (as oleic)—0.19 per cent; Saponification Value—239.5; Iodine No. (Hanus) 28.4; Unsaponifiable Matter—0.41 per cent; Pol. Value—0.85; Acetyl Value—3.5; Hehner Value—88.4; Thiocyanogen No.—24.5; R-M. Value—0.72. Agricultural Chemical Research Division Contribution No. 44.