Aflatoxins in food: occurrence, biosynthesis, effects on organisms, detection, and methods of control

Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites produced by species of Aspergilli, specifically Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These molds are ubiquitous in nature and grow on a variety of substrates, thereby producing aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are of great concern due to their biochemical and biological effects on living organisms. In this article, the occurrence of aflatoxins, their biosynthesis, factors influencing their production, their effects on living organisms, and methods of detection and control in food are reviewed. Future areas of research involving mathematical modeling of factors influencing aflatoxin production and alternative methods of control, such as modified atmosphere packaging, are also discussed.     

Inhibitory effect of Aspergillus niger on the growth of Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus flavus,and on aflatoxin formation

Aspergillus ochraceus and A flavus were grown on synthetic media (SM) supplemented with 50 or 200 ml litre^?1 SM on which A niger had been grown previously ( ‘A niger medium’ = ANM). Controls included SM acidified to pH 6.0 or 4.4, SM diluted with 50 or 200 ml litre^?1 water, and diluted-acidified SM. For both fungi, higher growth inhibition was recorded on ANM-containing SM than in the controls. Aflatoxin formation was markedly inhibited on SM to which 20 ml litre^?1 ANM extract (in methanol/chloroform, 2:1 v) had been added, although the growth of A flavus on that medium was almost the same as that in the control. It is concluded that the inhibitory effect of A niger on the growth of fungi should not be attributed merely to pH reduction, but also, mainly, to metabolites produced by the fungus in the growth medium, even at early stages of its growth.     

Mycotoxins as One of the Foodborne Risks Most Susceptible to Climatic Change

The impact of climate change on agriculture and food safety is certain. This may affect mycotoxin concentrations as fungi with higher temperature optima for growth and mycotoxin production will dominate in regions with currently cooler climates, or become less prevalent as the temperatures become too high in areas where the temperature is already hot. In Serbia, recent drought and then flooding confirmed that mycotoxins are one of the foodborne hazards most susceptible to climate change. This paper ams to discuss the weather influence on the mycotoxicology situation and to point out the possibility of prediction and prevention of such future problems.     

Exo-metabolites of mycelial fungi isolated in production premises of cheese-making and meat-processing plants

Data were obtained on the species composition of mycelial fungi isolated from the air of workrooms and production premises in cheese-making and meat-processing plants. The strains studied were shown to be capable of producing various low molecular weight compounds. Many of them are mycotoxins such as α-cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), mycophenolic acid (MPA), citrinin, cladosporin, roquefortine and ergot alkaloids. The profiles of the secondary metabolites were used to elucidate the species’ names of the isolated strains.     

Occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in animal feed from bihar,india

A total of 387 samples comprising animal feed, poultry feed and cattle cakes from India were examined in order to isolate mycotoxin-producing fungi as well as mycotoxins. Of 385 Aspergillus flavus group isolates 53% were capable of producing aflatoxins in liquid SMKY medium. Toxigenic strains of other mycotoxigenic fungi, viz A ochraceus, A versicolor, Penicillium citrinum and Fusarium moniliforme, were also recorded. In feed samples, beside the aflatoxins present in 139 samples zearalenone, ochratoxin A and citrinin were also recorded alone or as cocontaminants. A monsoon climate together with the socioeconomic conditions of this region are important determinants for the high incidence of mycotoxins in animal food.     

A survey of ochratoxin A occurence in Greek wines

A total of 150 wines, including 123?dry wines (64 red, 49 white and 10 rosé) and 27 dessert wines (14 red and 13 white), were obtained from various viticulture and oenological practices across Greece during the period 1999–2006 and analyzed for ochratoxin a (OTA) using immunoaffinity clean-up and HPLC with fluorescence detection. There was a high frequency of OTA in commercially available wines (69% positive samples). However, the level of contamination was relatively low, with only one sample marginally reaching the EU permitted maximum level (2.0?µg?l^?1). A total of 91% of the samples had OTA concentrations <1.0?µg?l^?1. The higher concentrations were found in wines from the southern regions, especially in dessert-type wines. There were no significant differences based on wine color or production years. Furthermore, there was no difference between conventional or organic cropping systems in terms of OTA presence.     

脉冲强光对黄曲霉菌孢子的杀菌效果、微观结构及动力学的影响

脉冲强光是一种新兴的非热杀菌技术。为研究和预测脉冲强光对黄曲霉菌孢子的杀菌作用,在强度2.86,1.60,1.08,0.93 W/cm2脉冲强光下对固体培养基中黄曲霉菌孢子处理1~60 s,并对处理前、后孢子的微观形态进行扫描电镜分析。运用Log-linear模型、Weibull模型和Weibull+tail模型对杀菌致死曲线进行动力学分析。研究表明,随着照射强度增加和时间的延长,脉冲强光对黄曲霉菌孢子的杀菌效果增强。初始菌落数为5.15 lg(CFU/mL)的孢子在2.86 W/cm2下处理19 s可被全部杀死。电镜照片显示脉冲强光处理后孢子细胞结构崩溃。Weibull模型和Weibull+tail模型较Log-linear模型能更好地拟合脉冲强光处理黄曲霉菌孢子的杀菌曲线(R2>0.95)。其中Weibull+tail模型能更加精确地拟合杀菌动力学过程(R2=0.9727)。     

Quantitative estimation of sampling uncertainties for mycotoxins in cereal shipments

Many countries receive shipments of bulk cereals from primary producers. There is a volume of work that is on-going that seeks to arrive at appropriate standards for the quality of the shipments and the means to assess the shipments as they are out-loaded. Of concern are mycotoxin and heavy metal levels, pesticide and herbicide residue levels, and contamination by genetically modified organisms (GMOs). As the ability to quantify these contaminants improves through improved analytical techniques, the sampling methodologies applied to the shipments must also keep pace to ensure that the uncertainties attached to the sampling procedures do not overwhelm the analytical uncertainties. There is a need to understand and quantify sampling uncertainties under varying conditions of contamination. The analysis required is statistical and is challenging as the nature of the distribution of contaminants within a shipment is not well understood; very limited data exist. Limited work has been undertaken to quantify the variability of the contaminant concentrations in the flow of grain coming from a ship and the impact that this has on the variance of sampling. Relatively recent work by Paoletti et al. in 2006 [Paoletti C, Heissenberger A, Mazzara M, Larcher S, Grazioli E, Corbisier P, Hess N, Berben G, Lübeck PS, De Loose M, et al. 2006. Kernel lot distribution assessment (KeLDA): a study on the distribution of GMO in large soybean shipments. Eur Food Res Tech. 224:129–139] provides some insight into the variation in GMO concentrations in soybeans on cargo out-turn. Paoletti et al. analysed the data using correlogram analysis with the objective of quantifying the sampling uncertainty (variance) that attaches to the final cargo analysis, but this is only one possible means of quantifying sampling uncertainty. It is possible that in many cases the levels of contamination passing the sampler on out-loading are essentially random, negating the value of variographic quantitation of the sampling variance. GMOs and mycotoxins appear to have a highly heterogeneous distribution in a cargo depending on how the ship was loaded (the grain may have come from more than one terminal and set of storage silos) and mycotoxin growth may have occurred in transit. This paper examines a statistical model based on random contamination that can be used to calculate the sampling uncertainty arising from primary sampling of a cargo; it deals with what is thought to be a worst-case scenario. The determination of the sampling variance is treated both analytically and by Monte Carlo simulation. The latter approach provides the entire sampling distribution and not just the sampling variance. The sampling procedure is based on rules provided by the Canadian Grain Commission (CGC) and the levels of contamination considered are those relating to allowable levels of ochratoxin A (OTA) in wheat. The results of the calculations indicate that at a loading rate of 1000 tonnes h^?1, primary sample increment masses of 10.6?kg, a 2000-tonne lot and a primary composite sample mass of 1900?kg, the relative standard deviation (RSD) is about 1.05 (105%) and the distribution of the mycotoxin (MT) level in the primary composite samples is highly skewed. This result applies to a mean MT level of 2?ng?g^?1. The rate of false-negative results under these conditions is estimated to be 16.2%. The corresponding contamination is based on initial average concentrations of MT of 4000?ng?g^?1 within average spherical volumes of 0.3?m diameter, which are then diluted by a factor of 2 each time they pass through a handling stage; four stages of handling are assumed. The Monte Carlo calculations allow for variation in the initial volume of the MT-bearing?grain, the average concentration and the dilution factor. The Monte Carlo studies seek to show the effect of variation in the sampling frequency while maintaining a primary composite sample mass of 1900?kg. The overall results are presented in terms of operational characteristic curves that relate only to the sampling uncertainties in the primary sampling of the grain. It is concluded that cross-stream sampling is intrinsically unsuited to sampling for mycotoxins and that better sampling methods and equipment are needed to control sampling uncertainties. At the same time, it is shown that some combination of cross-cutting sampling conditions may, for a given shipment mass and MT content, yield acceptable sampling performance.     

茶叶中真菌与真菌毒素污染风险状况与防控研究进展

茶叶因具有独特的风味以及对人体有益的生物活性物质,深受国内外消费者青睐。茶叶作为生产链较长的特殊经济农作物,其在生产过程中涉及的微生物背景仍不清晰,存在着潜在的有害微生物及真菌毒素污染。目前调查显示饮茶导致的真菌毒素暴露风险极低,但茶叶中真菌及真菌毒素污染的监控以及相关有害次级代谢产物的溯源问题亟待解决。本文综述了国内外有关茶叶中真菌及真菌毒素污染状况与防控相关研究,分析探讨了茶叶中真菌毒素的潜在污染风险,以期为茶叶中真菌毒素污染评估和防控提供参考依据,促进茶叶良好的质量管理和卫生控制体系的建立。