Microgrids project,Part 2: Design of an electrification kit with high content of renewable energy sources in Senegal

Senegal is one of the less developed countries in the world (position 158 in a list of 174 countries). 85% of its rural population does not have access to electricity and there's no doubt that this is an important barrier for socio-economic development. In this context, the project Microgrids aims at contributing to solve this problem. This project is part of the Intelligent Energy – Europe Programme supported by the European Commission. Its objective is the promotion and dissemination of the use of micro-grids with high content of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) for the electrification of villages far away from the grid in Senegal. One of the results of the project was the analysis of rural electrification needs, which is described in another paper [Camblong H, Sarr J, Niang AT, Curea O, Alzola JA, Sylla EH, Santos M. Microgrids project, part 1: analysis of rural electrification with high content of renewable energy sources in Senegal. Renewable Energy, submitted for publication.]. This paper presents the design of an electrification kit based on the information provided by that analysis [Analyse des besoins locaux pour l'électrification de zones rurales au Sénégal. Technical report of Microgrids project; 2007. Available from: http://www.microgrids-eie.com.]. After identifying necessary previous conditions for the sustainability of any electrification project, a methodology is proposed for the design of the electrification kit. This methodology is applied to a typical village and results are extended to differently sized villages in the areas of Thies, Fatick and Kaolack. Economic considerations are also included to establish the relationship between electrification costs and paying capability of the communities.Now the Microgrids' consortium hopes to set-up a new project to apply the designed kit on some rural non-electrified villages.     

The impact of microhydroelectricity on household welfare indicators

The use of small-scale off-grid renewable energy for rural electrification is now seen as part of the sustainable energy solutions. The expectation from such small-scale investment is that it can meet the basic energy needs of a household and subsequently improve some aspects of household welfare. However, these stated benefits remain largely hypothetical because there are data and methodological challenges in existing literature attempting to isolate such impact. This paper uses field data from microhydro schemes in Kenya, and propensity score matching technique to demonstrate such an impact. We find that on average, households connected to microhydroelectricity consume 1.5 l less of kerosene per month compared to households without any such electricity connection. In addition, non-connected households spend 0.92 USD more for recharging their cell phone batteries per month in comparison to those who were using microhydroelectricity service. Finally, school children from households that are connected to microhydroelectricity were found to devote 43 min less on evening studies compared to those without electricity. The findings provide interesting insights to some of the claims made for or against use of off grid renewable energy for rural electrification.     

Initiative for 100% rural electrification in developing countries: Case study of Senegal

Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest access to electricity in the World. In Senegal, less than 25% of the rural population benefit of electricity service. Solar energy offers an important potential to Senegal with over 3000 h of sunlight a year. This is a real opportunity to generalize the access to electricity. But, the efforts to bridge the gap must be diversified and completed. We approach the problem of rural electrification with a different point of view. Grid expansion and centralized solutions may be adequate for villages with a population organized in high-density of habitations. Small size villages or those with highly dispersed population may need different propositions because of cost. These regions will not be the priority of electrification programs. Furthermore, this rural population is characterized by its low income and saving. Such a conjuncture suggests the opportunity of a service based fees model for access to electricity. On the basis of a fees-for-service model, individual standalone photovoltaic systems may be a more appropriate solution to cover the priority needs of lighting and mobile phones battery charge for telecommunication. We present a pilot project in a village of Senegal to support the model and demonstrate its feasibility.     

Assessment and evaluation of PV based decentralized rural electrification: An overview

The challenges of providing electricity to rural households are manifold. Ever increasing demand–supply gap, crumbling electricity transmission and distribution infrastructure, high cost of delivered electricity are a few of these. Use of renewable energy technologies for meeting basic energy needs of rural communities has been promoted by the Governments world over for many decades. Photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the first among several renewable energy technologies that was adopted globally as well as in India for meeting basic electricity needs of rural areas that are not connected to the grid. This paper attempts at reviewing and analyzing PV literature pertaining to decentralized rural electrification into two main categories—(1) experiences from rural electrification and technology demonstration programmes covering barriers and challenges in marketing and dissemination; institutional and financing approaches; and productive and economic applications, (2) techno-economic aspects including system design methodologies and approaches; performance evaluation and monitoring; techno-economic comparison of various systems; and environmental implications and life cycle analysis. The paper discusses the emerging trends in its concluding remarks.     

The Brazilian experience of rural electrification in the Amazon with decentralized generation - The need to change the paradigm from electrification to development

There are at least 607 thousand households in the Brazilian Amazon that need to be attended with some form of regular electricity service. These households are not attended by the electricity sector through its electricity distribution companies and most of them have some form of precarious decentralized electricity generation that is not registered or regulated in the institutional framework. Diverse initiatives were taken by Brazilian government to attend these household through alternatives that relied on locally available renewable energy. This paper accesses this initiatives of rural electrification in the Brazilian Amazon. First an overview of the problems of rural electricity are discussed and its specificities in the Brazilian Amazon. Then the Brazilian institutional framework that organizes the decentralized electricity generation is described with its various limitations. The diverse initiatives undertaken to attend the rural communities in the Amazon since the 1990s are described, as well as how these initiatives are linked to the policies for rural electrification. The results shows that it can be inferred that sole market mechanisms are not sufficient to guarantee economic sustainability of these projects. This can be one of the reasons why traditional electricity distribution companies showed the lack of interest in promoting rural electrification with other means than grid extension. The most successful projects had financed efforts to integrate the generation of electricity into local development initiatives in order to guarantee sustainability and used substantial part of funding for local mobilization and organization. It needs a paradigm chance by treating these initiatives as local development initiatives and promoting alternative ways for its implementation through partnership between local new actors in the electricity sector and government and implementing policy on a local municipal level.     

The potential of a renewable energy technology for rural electrification in Nepal: A case study from Tangting

Nepal, one of the least developed countries, is characterized by low per capita energy consumption and hugely dominated by traditional energy sources. Despite having enormous potential of hydro-electricity, only 50% of the total population has access to grid electricity. Firewood is the primary energy source for domestic purposes in rural environments. Due to geographical remoteness, a scattered consumer, higher costs of supply and maintenance, low consumption and low level of households’ income linking the rural areas to national electricity grid is difficult and implausible. In order to solve the energy problem in rural areas, Nepal’s government has initiated the production and distribution of several renewable energy technologies. Among several renewable technologies, micro-hydropower has been one of the most promising and widely adopted decentralized technologies to distribute electricity in rural areas. This article begins with a general overview of energy situation in Nepal. Present status and perspective of micro-hydro plants have also been discussed. Similarly, the dynamics of the relationship between electricity and socio-economic development has been analyzed by means of a typical rural electrification project in Tangting, Nepal by assessing the impacts of electricity on health, education, environment, and income in the village. The community has greatly benefitted from the arrival of environment friendly and affordable electricity. It has been concluded that the task of providing electricity to more remote and isolated villages is still challenging in Nepal. More systematic and comprehensive study supported by research and development is required to extend micro-hydro based electricity in more remote and poor communities of Nepal.     

Evaluating the potential of small-scale renewable energy options to meet rural livelihoods needs: A GIS- and lifecycle cost-based assessment of Western China's options

The economics and livelihoods impacts of stand-alone, small-scale (less than 2 kW) renewable energy technologies for rural electrification are assessed using a representative sample of 531 rural households in three provinces of Western China. Over 20 small wind, photovoltaic (PV) and wind–PV hybrid configurations were evaluated for their potential to meet local electricity needs. The assessment integrates lifecycle costing and geographic information system (GIS) methods in order to provide a comprehensive resource, economic, technological and livelihoods assessment. The results of the analysis indicate that off-grid renewable energy technologies can provide cost-effective and reliable alternatives to conventional generator sets in addressing rural livelihoods energy requirements. Findings also demonstrate the existence of a sizeable market potential for stand-alone renewable energy systems in Western China. In support of market development for these technologies, policy recommendations are provided.     

Issues related to rural electrification using renewable energy in developing countries of Asia and Pacific

Renewable energy (RE) systems represent the most environmentally friendly and cost-effective means of providing electricity to those living in rural communities or regions in developing countries, however, this has been relatively slow and in many countries the proportion of the rural population supplied with electricity remains low and the proportion supplied with electricity from renewable energy systems is even lower. To understand the causes of this slow progress, a literatures review on renewable rural electrification programs was undertaken. The review suggested a need for better coordination at the national level between those institutions involved in the development and implementation of these programs. This paper compiles and analyse the issues associated with rural electrification in developing countries in Asia and the Pacific. Two case studies of programs are presented, one in Bangladesh and the other in Fiji. Based on the literature review and these two case studies, comments are provided on the policies and strategies required for renewable energy based rural electrification programs.     

Integrated solar energy systems for rural electrification in Kenya

In sub-Saharan Africa where population is projected to increase by 124% in the next 20 years, grid extension has advanced more slowly than in any other major regions; only about a third of the urban residents, and a mere 8% of the rural population, are served by grid electricity. Today, it is estimated that nearly two billion people worldwide remain without access to electricity or the immediate prospect of grid electrification. The situation in Kenya is no different. About 80% urban and 99.5% rural households, respectively, in Kenya have no access to electricity and its services. The annual electricity demand currently stands at 6% and increasing. However, we have shown that Kenya is well endowed with abundant renewable energy (RE) potential, especially solar energy resources. In our study, we have observed that Kenya gets an annual average exposure to sunshine of about 10 h per day in most regions, and an annual mean radiation of 6.98 kW h/m², which if harnessed efficiently could contribute to improve quality of life in rural and poor urban sector in Kenya.     

Potential application of renewable energy for rural electrification in Malaysia

Energy poverty and lack of electricity in rural areas exacerbate the poverty of the developing countries. In Malaysia, 3.8% of the population lives below the poverty line and most of them are settled in rural areas. The electricity coverage in poor states is about 79% in comparison with 99.62% in Peninsular Malaysia. The renewable energy sources can be considered the best alternative to reduce the energy poverty of the rural areas where the grid extension through a difficult terrain and thick jungle is not possible or economic. In this study, the potential for applying renewable sources – solar, wind and hydropower – for rural electrification is investigated, especially in the poorest States. A comparative study on rural electrification policies, in order to have community approval, appropriate siting and financial benefits for the rural community, while considering the three categories of social, institutional and economic issues, is also examined. Finally, the Malaysian policies of rural electrification by applying renewable sources are explained. It is found that in Malaysia, with a maximum solar radiation of about 6.027 kWh/m² per day in Sabah and 5.303 kWh/m² per day in Sarawak, the potential for applying solar energy for electrification is too high. However, the potential for micro-hydropower in Sabah and Sarawak is found to be 3182 kW and 6317 kW through 18 and 22 sites, respectively.     

Induction stoves as an option for clean cooking in rural India

As part of a programme on ‘access to clean cooking alternatives in rural India’, induction stoves were introduced in nearly 4000 rural households in Himachal Pradesh, one of the few highly electrified states in India. Analysis of primary usage information from 1000 rural households revealed that electricity majorly replaced Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), generally used as a secondary cooking fuel, but did not influence a similar shift from traditional mud stoves as the primary cooking technology. Likewise, the shift from firewood to electricity as a primary cooking fuel was observed in only 5% of the households studied. Country level analysis indicates that rural households falling in lower monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE) classes have lesser access to electricity and clean cooking options than those falling in higher MPCE classes. Again, only three states in India with high levels of rural household electrification report consumption statuses more than 82 kWh per month (the estimated mean for electricity consumption by induction stoves). Overall, the results of the study indicate that induction stoves will have limited potential in reducing the consumption of firewood and LPG if included in energy access programmes, that too only in regions where high levels of electrification exist.     

Grid electrification challenges, photovoltaic electrification progress and energy sustainability in Lesotho

Lesotho's energy profile is characterized by a predominance of traditional biomass energy to meet the energy needs of the rural households and a heavy dependence on imported petroleum for the modern economic sector needs. As a result, the country faces challenges related to unsustainable use of traditional forms of biomass and exposure to high and unstable oil import prices. There are relatively abundant renewable energy resources in the form of hydro, solar and wind. The average daily solar radiation in Lesotho varies between 4.5 and 6.5 kWh/m², with some areas in the South West averaging over 7 kWh/m²/day. Under the UNDP/GEF-supported Lesotho Renewable Energy-Based Rural Electrification (LREBRE) Project, a total of 5000 solar home systems (SHS) will be installed by 2012. Since the start of the project, a total of 1537 SHS with a capacity of 65 W have been installed, and an estimated 500 SHS have also been independently installed as a result of the project's influence. This paper examines the role of PV technologies in the sustainable development process, with particular reference to UNDP/GEF-LREBRE Lesotho PV project, and the extent to which this project is impacting on the PV industry. The paper also analyses national grid electrification and energy provision in rural areas and shows that the problem of rural electrification could be tackled by conventional and non-conventional means.     

Financing off-grid rural electrification: Country case Nepal

More than 61% of the total population of Nepal has no access to electricity. The majority is poor and live in rural areas. In recent years, rural electrification has had high priority in government policies, and micro hydro and solar PV have been the most commonly adopted off-grid technologies. The financial mix in the off-grid rural electrification is generally characterized by subsidy, equity and credit. In this paper, we analyze how rural electrification has been funded and the impact of subsidy policies on the renewable energy market, focusing on the projects implemented under the ‘subsidy policy 2000’. Our study is based on official data obtained from authorities in Nepal and a survey carried out among private supply and installation companies, NGOs and financial institutions. The study shows that awareness levels in adopting RE-technologies and willingness of people to access and pay for electricity have increased significantly. However, there is a huge financial gap between the cost of electrification and the affordability. Bridging this gap is a crucial issue that needs to be addressed for the smooth expansion of rural electrification in the country.     

Involving the user : Community based management of solar home systems in Indonesia

Taking existing technologies simply off the shelf and handing them over to users might in the beginning satisfy stakeholders and users involved in a rural electrification project but the likelihood of failure and disappointment is very high. Pitfalls are well known and have led to a slow down of entrepreneurial initiatives and market development. In Indonesia with its long history of harnessing new and renewable energy technologies (NRE), participatory development is not common for decentralized rural electrification (RE) schemes. Although electrification by means of Solar Home Systems (SHS) has a long tradition throughout the archipelago, community-based management has long been neglected and hence projects have been prone to failure. Implementing SHS in a sustainable way is still far from routine business and requires competent resources, interdisciplinary know-how if the scheme should last long and public knowledge about the benefits of electricity utilization. In this article Claus Dauselt, describes the Indonesian SHS experience and aspects important for sustainable, decentralized rural electrification in particular the need for community involvement in the project right from the start.     

Feasibility assessment of Anchor-Business-Community model for off-grid rural electrification in India

The concept of “micro-grids” as self-sustained power systems is driven largely by business models, which have to be developed by considering the perspectives of all the stakeholders. This study tests the feasibility of the Anchor-Business-Community model of off-grid electrification in a cluster of two Hamlets in Uttar Pradesh, from the perspective of a Renewable Energy Service Company. Telecom towers, Flour Mills and rural communities have been considered as the Anchor, Business and community customers respectively. Primary surveys have been carried out to assess socio-economic characteristics, renewable energy resource availability and energy demand. Cost savings has been assumed to be the primary incentive for the customers to switch to clean energy. Cash flow analysis has been done to estimate the level of profitability of the project with and without the current level of subsidy. Solar Photovoltaic systems, Biomass gasification systems and Solar-Biomass hybrid systems have been modelled using HOMER. The model for Solar PV system with subsidy was found to be the most robust out of all three models in the scenario analysis. Solar-Biomass hybrid systems and Biomass Standalone systems are found to have the potential to offer a healthy level of returns under the best case and most likely scenarios.     

Renewable rural electrification: Sustainability assessment of mini-hybrid off-grid technological systems in the African context

The investigation summarised in this paper applied a sustainability assessment methodology on a renewable energy technological system in a rural village project that was commissioned by the South African Department of Minerals and Energy. The project comprised of wind, solar and lead-acid battery energy storage technologies that were implemented as a mini-hybrid off-grid electrification system for the village. The sustainability assessment methodology predicts the outcomes of such interventions by way of a learning model using discipline experts in the fields of economics, sociology, ecosystem sustainability, institutional governance, and the physics and chemistry of energy conversion processes. The comparison of the project's outcomes with a South African sustainable development framework shows that the specific village renewable off-grid electrification system is not viable. The main reason is that charges for electricity supply costs in village grids are too high for available subsidies; the economies of scale for renewable energy supply technologies favour national grids. The failure of the integrated system may also be attributable to the complexity of the social-institutional sub-system, which resulted in uncertainty for project planners and system designers, and the lack of resilience of the technological system to demands from the socio-economic and institutional sub-systems. Policy-related recommendations are made accordingly.     

Wind energy in Vietnam: Resource assessment,development status and future implications

The aim of this study is to estimate the technical potential of wind energy in Vietnam and discuss strategies for promoting the market penetration of wind energy in the country. For the wind resource assessment, a geographical information system (GIS)- assisted approach has been developed. It is found that Vietnam has a good potential for wind energy. About 31,000 km² of land area can be available for wind development in which 865 km² equivalents to a wind power of 3572 MW has a generation cost less than 6 US cents/kWh. The study also proves that wind energy could be a good solution for about 300,000 rural non-electrified households. While wind energy brings about ecological, economic and social benefits, it is only modestly exploited in Vietnam, where the main barrier is the lack of political impetus and a proper framework for promoting renewable energy. The priority task therefore is to set a target for renewable energy development and to find instruments to achieve such a target. The main instruments proposed here are setting feed-in tariff and providing investment incentives.     

Current status of renewable energy in Nepal: Opportunities and challenges

Energy is indispensible in modern society and is one of the most important components of socio-economic development. Nepal is one of the least developed countries with more than 80% of its population residing in rural communities. Per capita energy usage – often viewed as a key index of the development – in the country is far less than the global average per capita energy usage. The energy sector is dominated by the traditional energy sources such as fuel woods, crop residues and animal dung mainly for domestic usage contributing to about 86% of the national energy consumption. Currently 40% of the population has access to electricity, and the rural electrification accounts for only 29%. The majority of rural populations are meeting their energy needs by burning biomass in traditional stoves which has several environmental and public health issues. Nearly all fossil-derived fuels consumed in the country are imported in a refined form, and the perpetual increase in petroleum imports has adversely impacted the existing fragile economy of the country. Despite a huge potential in harnessing various renewable energy resources such as hydropower, solar power, wind energy and biofuels/bioenergy, these resources have not been sustainably captured due to geographical, technical, political and economical reasons. This paper presents a brief account of Nepal's renewable energy resources and the current status of various renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as micro-hydro, solar power, wind energy, biofuel/bioenergy, improved cook stoves, and improved water mill. It also highlights the opportunities and barriers for the development of RETs. Finally this paper presents some recommendations for the promotion, development and implementation of RETs in the country.     

Energy access problem of the poor in India: Is rural electrification a remedy?

India accounts for a third of the world's population without access to electricity and about 40% of those without access to modern energy. Such a situation exists despite several initiatives and policies to support poor households. Alarmed by the gravity of the situation, the government has recently announced an ambitious programme of rural electrification. This paper looks into the energy access situation of India and argues that rural electrification alone is unlikely to resolve the energy access problem because of low penetration of electricity in the energy mix of the poor.     

The value of cooperatives in rural electrification

The electricity sectors of many developing countries underwent substantial reforms during the 1980s and 1990s, driven by global agendas of privatization and liberalization. However, rural electrification offered little by way of market incentives for profit-seeking private companies and was often neglected. As a consequence, delivery models for rural electrification need to change. This paper will review the experiences of various rural electrification delivery models that have been established in developing countries, including concessionary models, dealership approaches and the strengthening of small and medium-sized energy businesses. It will use examples from the USA, Bangladesh and Nepal, together with a detailed case study of a Nepali rural electric cooperative, to explore the role that local cooperatives can play in extending electricity access. It is shown that although there is no magic bullet solution to deliver rural electrification, if offered appropriate financial and institutional support, socially orientated cooperative businesses can be a willing, efficient and effective means of extending and managing rural electricity services. It is expected that this paper will be of particular value to policy-makers, donors, project planners and implementers currently working in the field of rural electrification.