Human factors in information technology: The socio-organisational aspects of expert systems design

This paper looks beyond the mostly technical and business issues that currently inform the design of knowledge-based systems (e.g., expert systems) to point out that there is also a social and organisational (a socio-organisational) dimension to the issues affecting the design decisions of expert systems and other information technologies. It argues that whilst technical and business issues are considered before the design of Expert Systems, that socio-organisational issues determine the acceptance and long-run utility of the technology after it has been implemented. It shows how four issues within the organisation can affect the design or the after-effects of the design and implementation of the technology. It also shows how the four issues can be considered within the structured phases of expert system development.     

Expert systems: An application in flexible manufacturing

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) are needed to provide manufacturing operations with the capability to adjust, in real time, to changes in the manufacturing environment. Realization of the goals of flexible manufacturing is governed by the ability of the FMS to maintain adequate information on the factory to assist in generating scenarios from product planning to operations and performance. This leads to a view where the factory is represented as an integrated information system. To facilitate the analysis of information requirements and the design of information systems for flexible manufacturing, an expert support system (ESS) which can be used to model and study the various structures is described. This ESS uses the information cell model to build these information structures. Petri net representations of these structures and their interactions are then constructed. The ESS may now be used to exercise these models and study their performance using time and cost measures.     

The effectiveness of office information systems: a social action perspective

Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to show that a number of basic issues have not been adequately addressed in existing office information systems research. Prominent among these are the nature and role of offices, the goals of office information systems development, and the nature of its organizational and managerial consequences. It is proposed that office information systems should be analysed as social action systems the behaviour of which is strongly affected by socially determined forces and constraints such as the behaviour-channelling influences of authority, norms, customs, habits and precedence. Four types of social action are discussed: instrumental, strategic, communicative and discursive. Three contexts for perceiving and analysing the effects of social action in offices are introduced: technology, language and organization. Office information systems changes affect elements and relationships in these three contexts in different ways. By cross-relating social action types and contexts, nine classes of object systems are identified. Each object system class implies a different category of effectiveness concerns which in turn implies different office information system design requirements. The paper notes that the existing research literature has primarily been concerned with only three of the nine object systems. For more effective office information systems development, however, the other systems also need to be considered. The paper concludes by exploring how this may be done.     

The design process of expert systems development: some concerns

Abstract: A discussion is presented of why some expert systems that organizations have developed are not successful. The concept of design process plays a very significant role at the outset of the expert system development process. This concept has not been the subject of much debate and attention in expert systems development. From the author's point of view, one of the main issues is how the designer (knowledge engineer) thinks about the design process. In general, the designer's process is influenced by the knowledge engineer's conception. This paper endeavors to disclose some of the main factors related to the knowledge engineer's conception of the design process and an attempt is made to put forward a conceptual model of the expert system design process. This conceptual model is an initial step towards a successful implementation of expert system projects.     

基于Multi-Agent 的主动式ESS设计

基于Multi-Agent的主动式主管支持系统（ESS，Executive Support Systems)是一个前沿性的研究课题，文章对此进行了初步分析，主要的工作有：1）通过对企业环境、技术发展以及传统ESS的分析，认为基于Multi-Agent的主动式ESS是ESS发展的方向之一；2）针对企业战略制定的具体决策问题，设计了一个基于Multi-Agent的主动式ESS的体系结构；3）认为主动式信息筛选机制是系统当前研究的关键问题之一。     

Research issues in testing business components

The advantages of migrating from traditional monolithic business applications to reusable object-based business components (self-contained software that carries out a certain business task) are well documented. A business system assembled from reusable components is argued to be highly reliable since these components have been tested and used in many other business applications. However, all possible uses of components are not known at design and construction stage. Additionally, integration testing is needed as components are assembled to make business application systems. Component-based software development requires that testing issues be addressed adequately. In this paper, we explore testing related issues in business components and in particular, business application systems that are made by integrating these components. An integration test strategy for business component application systems is proposed.     

Cognitive ergonomics, socio-technical systems, and the impact of healthcare information technologies

The United States healthcare system is transitioning from paper-based to computer-based systems. In this process, it is vitally important to focus on optimizing the role of human factors in systems design. This review examines a wide range of cognitive ergonomics and socio-technical systems issues that impact the successful implementation of healthcare information technologies (HIT). We review evidence on the impact of HIT on medication errors, electronic health records and clinical support, copying clinical exams and notes, computerized-provider order entry and clinical decision support system, and bar-code medication administration systems. We examine research on barriers to successful HIT implementation and also on user workarounds of systems’ limitations. The review concludes by summarizing a series of important human factors design considerations that must be considered for successful systems implementation. This information is presented in a manner that should allow HIT system designers and implementers to readily incorporate these principles into their future developments.Relevance to industry: Evidence from a comprehensive review of the impact of HIT on a wide variety of important healthcare issues is presented and a series of human factors design considerations that are critical to successful HIT systems design is summarized.     

Understanding Data-Driven Decision Support Systems

It is important for managers and Information Technology professionals to understand data-driven decision support systems and how such systems can provide business intelligence and performance monitoring. Data-driven DSS is one of five major types of computerized decision support systems and the features of such systems vary across specific implementations. Different development packages also impact the capabilities of data-driven DSS and hence criteria for evaluating data-driven DSS development software are important to understand. Overall, this article builds on an historic foundation of prior decision support systems theory.     

Organisational considerations for software reuse

Reuse is widely promoted as one of the most promising methods for increasing productivity and quality within software development. Until recently most research into strategies for systematic reuse has focused on solution of the technical issues. Now as companies (mostly IT focused) implement the strategies developed, they find there are other issues which hold back their success, somewhat unrelated to the technical solutions offered. Reuse processes are not simple technologies and methods slotted into a development, like the transition in design notation from traditional approaches to an object-;orientated method. Whereas technology changes involve retraining developers. Reuse requires the whole organisation and funding of development to be revised. If the magnitude of change involved in transitioning an IT organisation is so encompassing, where does this leave the rest of industry which is increasingly reliant on software to support their business process? This paper looks at organisational and management issues raised by the introduction of software reuse to the development process. We identify inhibitors of reuse adoption, look at causes of these and suggest possible solutions. We aim to concisely present all those non-;technical issues that should be considered when introducing a reuse program. Considered also is how these issues affect companies which have IT in only a business support capacity, making this paper relevant throughout industry.     

Rationality in Information Systems Support to Decision Making

Management information systems serve business organizations by providing information for decision making. Various types of systems serve different types of decision contexts. The philosophic basis of information system support is discussed. The rational (or normative) philosophy is widely used, and appears in business theory in the form of agency theory and transaction cost analysis. While this approach has been valuable in some contexts, there are other contexts where the rational approach has limited in utility for real business decision making. Decision makers need to consider subjective factors to enable them to cope with the high levels of uncertainty, incomplete understanding, and imperfect data typical of dynamic open systems. There are alternative philosophies upon which to base decision-making that are appropriate for specific decision contexts. Churchman identified empirical, multi-perspective frameworks, dialectic, and cause-and-effect inquiring systems as alternatives to the rational (normative) system. A number of information system tools, such as decision support systems, expert systems, and group support systems can be supported by models based on philosophies other than rational models. A more empirically based philosophy, with decision-makers balancing hypothesis generation and observations of performance, is often more appropriate. The relationship between Churchman's inquiring systems and information system types are discussed.     

Information systems and uncertainty: a conspiracy of misplaced confidence

Abstract. Information technology is becoming an increasingly important factor in contemporary management. Information systems are being set up in business explicitly to accommodate the new opportunities of this technology, and these are having a lasting effect on managerial practice. The full implications of this technology-driven development have not been appreciated by organizations, which in absorbing technological systems, are tolerating a great drain on their resources.
The efficacy of computers is predicated on the acceptance of some very specific perspectives. A growing discontent and disappointment with their limited achievements is our reason for advocating a different point of view. We will discuss how a shift in perspective, particularly in respect to the perception of uncertainty, will affect thinking and practice in the field of management support systems. We will render our view of the application of computerized decision support systems (DSS), and especially, we will focus on the beliefs and assumptions that have shaped this technology thus far. To this end we will discuss the concept of uncertainty, by juxtaposing current thinking and practice with our understanding of the context of its application. Finally, we will place our understanding of uncertainty in a managerial context and explain the implications this would have for strategists.     

Fundamental issues of decision support systems: A consequentialist perspective

While considerable enthusiasm for DSS exists in many quarters, there are still a number of fundamental issues which have not been seriously addressed. Of particular concern, is how DSS is likely to affect organizations. This philosophically motivated paper analyzes the underlying assumptions of DSS and develops an approach for consequence determination. Moreover, the paper uses this approach to assess how DSS might affect various organizational elements.     

Decision support for flight re-routing in Europe

Congestion has plagued air traffic in the US and in Europe for the last 20 years. To protect air traffic control from overloads, air traffic flow management tries to anticipate and prevent overloads and to limit resulting delays. This paper focuses on understanding the requirements for developing re-routing decision support systems (DSS). It identifies participants in re-routing decisions and investigates the concept of, and need for, a re-routing decision support system. A re-routing demonstrator is discussed as a first step in the development of a DSS and a demonstrator for pre-tactical and tactical re-routings is described. User feedback is presented and issues of automation and complexity of re-routing DSS are discussed. Finally, the integration of re-routing DSS in future air traffic management systems is addressed.     

Information support systems for problem solving

The occurrence in the literature of success stories dealing with (management) information systems is rare indeed. This paper addresses some of the possible factors that make it difficult to design and implement successful information (and decision support) systems. More specifically, we consider the role of problem formulation and specification, including goal setting, in the design of information systems.     

Building an E-Business from Enterprise Systems

Building their companies into successful e-businesses has become an important objective for today's enterprises. Conceptually, it embodies the enabling of the business with such capabilities as global networking, streamlining business processes, sharing information, agility in responding to the market, and intelligent decision making. But how can these concepts be implemented in actual enterprises? Why do these desirable attributes of business systems suddenly become the definition of competency of companies large and small? This paper describes the framework for building an e-business from the enterprise information systems' perspective. Increasingly enterprise systems have extended beyond the traditional business functions and include such new features as supply-chain management, customer relationship management and electronic commerce. The shifting focus is driven by the adoption of the Web as a new channel for product distribution, marketing, and interacting with customers. The integration of the traditional as well as the Web-oriented functions is the cornerstone for a successful e-business. This paper presents a framework for e-businesses that on one hand build on the enterprise systems but on the other hand encompasses the new e-business dimensions.     

Understanding Data-Driven Decision Support Systems

Abstract

It is important for managers and Information Technology professionals to understand data-driven decision support systems and how such systems can provide business intelligence and performance monitoring. Data-driven DSS is one of five major types of computerized decision support systems and the features of such systems vary across specific implementations. Different development packages also impact the capabilities of data-driven DSS and hence criteria for evaluating data-driven DSS development software are important to understand. Overall, this article builds on an historic foundation of prior decision support systems theory.     

Reconciling user and project manager perceptions of IT project risk: a Delphi study1

Abstract. In an increasingly dynamic business environment characterized by fast cycle times, shifting markets and unstable technology, a business organization’s survival hinges on its ability to align IT capabilities with business goals. To facilitate the successful introduction of new IT applications, issues of project risk must be addressed, and the expectations of multiple stakeholders must be managed appropriately. To the extent that users and developers may harbour different perceptions regarding project risk, areas of conflict may arise. By understanding the differences in how users and project managers perceive the risks, insights can be gained that may help to ensure the successful delivery of systems. Prior research has focused on the project manager’s perspective of IT project risk. This paper explores the issue of IT project risk from the user perspective and compares it with risk perceptions of project managers. A Delphi study reveals that these two stakeholder groups have different perceptions of risk factors. Through comparison with a previous study on project manager risk perceptions, zones of concordance and discordance that must be reconciled are identified.     

Causal modelling as a tool for problem framing within a group decision support system: an object-oriented approach

Abstract. This paper contributes toward the design of intelligent group decision support systems (GDSS). It suggests a GDSS architecture that would enable a group of managers to discuss, learn from each other and possibly develop consensus about decisions or their causes. It shows how an object-oriented approach can be used in producing interactive software to support managerial debate about problem solving. The method uses comprehensive situation mapping causal mapping to represent each manager's perceptions of the relationships between key variables of a firm's strategic situation. The paper presents a prototype implementation and, based on experiences from it, discusses issues concerning future development and use.     

Executive support systems and executive preferences: a comparison of information channel selection theories

Abstract. A number of theories have been put forward to explain how managers make information channel choices. These include channel disposition, media richness and social influence. Each is assessed in terms of its usefulness for providing insight into why executives choose to use or not to use executive support systems (ESS). The results of a survey of 66 executives indicate that social influence theory may provide significant insight into information channel selection. A secondary analysis provides evidence that there are no significant relationships between demographic characteristics and several perceptual measures of ESS performance.     

The Hybrid World of Virtual Environments

Much of the work concerned with virtual environments has addressed the development of new rendering technologies or interaction techniques. As the technology matures and becomes adopted in a wider range of applications, there is, however, a need to better understand how this technology can be accommodated in software engineering practice. A particular challenge presented by virtual environments is the complexity of the interaction that is supported, and sometimes necessary, for a particular task. Methods such as finite-state automata which are used to represent and design dialogue components for more conventional interfaces, e.g. using direct manipulation within a desktop model, do not seem to capture adequately the style of interaction that is afforded by richer input devices and graphical models. In this paper, we suggest that virtual environments are, fundamentally, what are known as hybrid systems. Building on this insight, we demonstrate how techniques developed for modelling hybrid systems can be used to represent and understand virtual interaction in a way that can be used in the specification and design phases of software development, and which have the potential to support prototyping and analysis of virtual interfaces.