"Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure": Correction to Flynn.

Reports an error in "Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure" by James R. Flynn (Psychological Bulletin, 1987[Mar], Vol 101[2], 171-191). In this article, it was wrongly stated that that U. Schallberger put forward a hypothesis or hypotheses concerning the magnitude of Swiss IQ gains; in fact, he did not. Flynn wishes to acknowledge this error and stress that his critique of these hypotheses does not apply to Schallberger. Schallberger had earlier come to the same conclusion as Flynn, namely, that the Swiss have probably made sizable IQ gains, but all estimates of magnitude would have only speculative status. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-17534-001.) Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data proved the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain difficult trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978.

Demonstrates that every Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, WISC, WAIS, WISC-R, WAIS-R, and WPPSI standardization sample from 1932 to 1978 established norms of a higher standard than its predecessor. The obvious interpretation of this pattern is that representative samples of Americans did better and better on IQ tests over a period of 46 yrs, the total gain amounting to a rise in mean IQ of 13.8 points. The implications of this finding are developed: The combination of IQ gains and the decline in Scholastic Aptitude Test scores seems almost inexplicable; obsolete norms have acted as an unrecognized confounding variable in hundreds of studies; and IQ gains of this magnitude pose a serious problem of causal explanation. (114 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

IQ gains and fluid g.

Responds to J. P. Rushton's comments (see record 2000-15413-003) on the J. R. Flynn article (see record 1999-00167-001) examining IQ gains over time. Flynn contends that factor analysis does show that inbreeding depression isolated from a cluster including fluid g, IQ gains, and Black-White differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What does the Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale really measure? A cognitive interpretation.

The Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC) has been variously interpreted as a measure of leadership style or as a measure of the cognitive complexity of the leader. In this study, using 112 Ss including business students, managers, and systems analysts, the LPC scale scores were correlated with 2 other measures of differentiation and with 3 cognitive measures in an attempt to assess the interpretation of the scale as a cognitive measure. Results show that while the low end of the LPC seems to be associated with cognitive simplicity, the high-least preferred co-worker S was not unequivocally cognitively complex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Searching for justice: The discovery of IQ gains over time.

Humane-egalitarian ideals, whose aims are group justice and reducing environmental inequality and privilege, must be tested against reality, as revealed by psychology and other social sciences. Four issues are addressed: the equation between IQ and intelligence, whether group potential is determined by a group's mean IQ, whether the Black–White IQ gap is genetic, and the meritocratic thesis that genes for IQ will become highly correlated with class. Massive IQ gains over time test the IQ–intelligence equation, reveal groups who achieve far beyond their mean IQs, and falsify prominent arguments for a genetic racial IQ gap. Class IQ trends suggest America is not evolving toward a meritocracy, but a core refutation of that thesis is needed and supplied. Finally, the viability of humane ideals is assessed against a worst-case scenario. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Insect repellents. What really works?

DEET remains one of the most effective repellents against a wide variety of insects. Although adverse reactions have been reported in the medical literature and magnified in the press, the compound is remarkably safe and has been used by hundreds of millions of people over the past 40 years. Permethrin is a better deterrent of ticks and, like DEET, is remarkably safe. Concomitant use of these two agents provides superior protection. Citronella and a bath oil, Avon Skin-So-Soft, also provide limited protection against some types of flying insects. The promise of new agents or protective strategies is on the horizon. Recently it was shown that retroviral vectors could be used to integrate and express foreign genes in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Conceivably, a genetically engineered mosquito that is resistant to malaria and other transmissible diseases may one day be developed, obviating some of the need for repellents. Almost certainly, future research will yield additional agents to further protect against mosquitoes.     

Dysgenesis and IQ: What evidence is relevant?

W. M. Williams and S. J. Ceci (see record 1998-00892-001) argue against the presence of dysgenic trends for IQ in the United States on the basis of absence of change in the differences between various groups. It is noted here that such differences say little about dysgenesis: This is illustrated by an example of the numbers of children born to Black and White women at different educational levels. Some overall effects, mechanisms, and implications of dysgenesis for IQ are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What college students really think about ethnic student organizations.

In this study, the authors examined European, Hispanic, and African American college students' attitudes toward ethnic student organizations (ESOs). Based on data from Study 1 (N = 750), it was found that students across ethnic groups expressed uncertainty about whether ESOs were beneficial/necessary, fair/acceptable, and about their interest in joining an ESO. As a group, Hispanic and African American students did not believe that ESOs contributed to racial or ethnic separatism on campus, whereas European Americans expressed uncertainty about that possibility. In Study 2, a separate sample of students (N = 631) was randomly assigned to read the mission statement of a White, Hispanic, or African American ESO. Consistent with asymmetry theory, students in general judged the White American ESO as significantly less beneficial/necessary, less fair/acceptable, and as contributing more to racial/ethnic separatism than the Hispanic and African American ESOs. European, Hispanic, and African American students viewed their own ESO most favorably, although European American students were more consistent in their appraisals of ESOs irrespective of the ethnic focus of the ESO. Implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What harvesters really think about in commons dilemma simulations: A grounded theory analysis.

Verbal protocols and structured interviews were conducted with 16 Ss (11 undergraduates, 3 graduate students, 1 computer technician, and 1 high school student) to investigate decision making in a simulated commons dilemma. Grounded theory was used to identify motivational and cognitive mediators of harvest choices. The core category that emerged from the analysis was labeled goal satisficing. Most Ss adopted or formulated specific harvest goals prior to and during the simulation. These goals guided decision-making, influencing strategies, and ultimately how many points were harvested. Five action strategies used to pursue goals were identified: developing initial harvest plans, monitoring pool size and others' harvests, developing expectancies about others, simulating possible outcomes, and strategic influence. Results suggest that defection (resource overuse) occurs in commons dilemmas for 2 main reasons: a failure to adopt cooperative goals, or a failure to implement effective action strategies after such goals are adopted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What do attitude scales measure: The problem of social desirability.

It was hypothesized that the tendency to find positive correlations between various measures of personality traits may accrue because of the willingness of S to ascribe to himself either socially desirable or undesirable attitudes on several samples of his self-attitudes. It was found that social desirability did influence the probability of ascribing to oneself items from several kinds of questionnaires, that socially desirable traits on various tests tended to be ascribed to by Ss wishing to describe themselves in socially desirable ways. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GD86T. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity of the Wonderlic Personnel Test as a brief IQ measure in psychiatric patients.

100 male psychiatric inpatient referrals (mean age 41.18 yrs) for psychological testing were administered the Wonderlic Personnel Test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) in a counterbalanced order. In this clinical context, the Wonderlic proved not to be an acceptable alternative to the WAIS—R. The tests correlated only moderately (.75), differed in mean IQ level, and agreed in IQ classification in only 40% of the cases. Efforts to improve these results by devising new IQ correction factors resulted in only slight improvements. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Perceptions of Science Classes Survey: What undergraduate science reform efforts really need to address.

Nine-hundred twenty two undergraduates completed an 80-item survey that assessed their perceptions of undergraduate science classes. Factor analysis of the items yielded 6 factors: (1) Pedagogical Strategies, (2) Faculty Interest in Teaching, (3) Student Interest and Perceived Competence in Science, (4) Passive Learning, (5) Grades as Feedback, and (6) Laboratory Experiences. Women differed significantly from men on the Pedagogical Strategies, Passive Learning, Grades as Feedback, and Laboratory Experiences factors. Correlational analyses and evidence from distinct groups supported the survey's construct validity. Students reported room for improvement of the science faculty's pedagogical practices. From the students' perspective, how information is taught appears to be at least as much of a concern as what information is taught. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thrombolytic therapy in stroke. What do clinical tests prove?

Despite the increased risk of intracranial haemorrhage associated with the use of thrombolytic treatment of stroke. American studies have shown patients treated with rt-PA (recombinant plasminogen activator) within three hours of the onset of symptoms to manifest 30 per cent less disability at three-month follow-up than those placebo. However, until satisfactory criteria for the use of rt-PA are available, caution is essential, and thrombolytic therapy should be restricted to specialised centres. It is also important to promote public awareness of the stroke patient's need of immediate treatment at a specialised stroke unit.     

What are we really priming? Cue-based versus category-based processing of facial stimuli.

Results from 5 experiments provide converging evidence that automatic evaluation of faces in sequential priming paradigms reflects affective responses to phenotypic features per se rather than evaluation of the racial categories to which the faces belong. Experiment I demonstrates that African American facial primes with racially prototypic physical features facilitate more automatic negative evaluations than do other Black faces that are unambiguously categorizable as African American but have less prototypic features. Experiments 2, 3, and 4 further support the hypothesis that these differences reflect direct affective responses to physical features rather than differential categorization. Experiment 5 shows that automatic responses to facial primes correlate with cue-based but not category-based explicit measures of prejudice. Overall, these results suggest the existence of 2 distinct types of prejudice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety or pain: What does the scale measure?

E. R. Katz et al (see record 1980-22464-001) report the development of an observational scale to measure distress behavior in children with cancer. They discuss this scale as if it measured anxiety, but the present authors suggest that the scale probably reflects both anxiety and pain. The terms are difficult to distinguish because they refer to constructs. Therefore, future research should build upon the work of Katz et al by elaborating the theoretical definition of anxiety and pain and by using a somewhat altered rating methodology. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What do data really mean? Research findings, meta-analysis, and cumulative knowledge in psychology.

How should data be interpreted to optimize the possibilities for cumulative scientific knowledge? Many believe that traditional data interpretation procedures based on statistical significance tests reduce the impact of sampling error on scientific inference. Meta-analysis shows that the significance test actually obscures underlying regularities and processes in individual studies and in research literatures, leading to systematically erroneous conclusions. Meta-analysis methods can solve these problems, and have done so in some areas. However, meta-analysis represents more than merely a change in methods of data analysis. It requires major changes in the way psychologists view the general research process. Views of the scientific value of the individual empirical study, the current reward structure in research, and even the fundamental nature of scientific discovery may change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

No pain, no gains: Negative mood leads to process gains in idea-generation groups.

Research has consistently demonstrated that individuals tend to outperform groups on idea-generation tasks (e.g., Mullen, Johnson, & Salas, 1991). However, mood states have the capacity to alter the coordination and motivation of group members, leading to performance gains or performance losses. In this experiment, individuals and 3-person groups generated slogans for a fictitious company after experiencing a positive or negative mood induction. Contrary to previous research, negative mood groups in our study actually generated slogans that were more creative than those produced by negative mood individuals. No differences emerged for positive individuals and groups. In the negative conditions, the effect of level of analysis (individual vs. group) on creativity was mediated by persistence on the slogan-generation task. Results are presented in the context of feelings-as-information (N. Schwarz & G. L. Clore, 1988). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What do we really know about Helicobacter pylori in gastric ulcer disease?

Advances in diagnostic and therapeutic technology have not appreciably changed the outlook of patients with pancreatic cancer. While those patients presenting with localized resectable disease have the best prognosis, local control and intra-abdominal metastases remain significant obstacles to survival. Localized chemoradiation has modestly improved median survival in localized and locally advanced disease. Patients presenting with locally advanced disease at diagnosis benefit from surgical palliation which includes biliary and gastric bypass. Intraoperative interstitial brachytherapy has been effective when utilized at laparotomy to improve local control in locally advanced disease. Advances in laparoscopic techniques have provided the ability to more accurately stage patients prior to laparotomy and perform palliative procedures without the need for laparotomy. The utilization of high-dose-rate brachytherapy has proven effective in palliating obstructive symptoms with minimal morbidity on an outpatient basis. Recent efforts have focused on preoperative chemoradiation to improve resectability in selected patients and prophylactic hepatic irradiation to reduce metastases for patients with locally advanced disease.     

Imagery assessment through self-report: What do imagery questionnaires measure?

Assessment difficulties have impeded progress in evaluating the therapeutic role of visual imagery. Four studies with 445 undergraduates examined imagery questionnaires and addressed the issues of (a) reliability, (b) agreement among different questionnaires, (c) social desirability, and (d) construct validity. The (Betts) Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery, Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control, and a newer inventory, the Paivio Individual Differences Questionnaire, were examined. Reliability of the Paivio inventory was found to be satisfactory and equivalent to that of other imagery questionnaires. In 2 studies, the Betts and Paivio questionnaires were correlated at the .45–.50 level, but correlations involving the Gordon scale were inconsistent from one study to the next. In general, imagery measures were not influenced by social desirability (Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale). Factor analysis indicated that subjective and objective measures of visualization are independent. The final study revealed a relationship between imagery questionnaire scores and reported values and interests. It is suggested that imagery is not a unitary construct and that criteria other than visuospatial tests may be appropriate for validating imagery questionnaires. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceiver effects as projective tests: What your perceptions of others say about you.

In 3 studies, we document various properties of perceiver effects—or how an individual generally tends to describe other people in a population. First, we document that perceiver effects have consistent relationships with dispositional characteristics of the perceiver, ranging from self-reported personality traits and academic performance to well-being and measures of personality disorders, to how liked the person is by peers. Second, we document that the covariation in perceiver effects among trait dimensions can be adequately captured by a single factor consisting of how positively others are seen across a wide range of traits (e.g., how nice, interesting, trustworthy, happy, and stable others are generally seen). Third, we estimate the 1-year stability of perceiver effects and show that individual differences in the typical perception of others have a level of stability comparable to that of personality traits. The results provide compelling evidence that how individuals generally perceive others is a stable individual difference that reveals much about the perceiver's own personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)