"The Rorschach and Holtzman as Measures of Pathognomic Verbalization": Erratum.

Reports an error in the article, "The Rorschach and Holtzman as Measures of Pathognomic Verbalization" by Leighton Whitaker in the April 1965 issue of the Journal of Consulting Psychology. A corrected version of the sentence on page 182, 15 lines from the bottom of the right-hand column is given. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1965-10275-001). This study was planned to obtain information about the reliability of Rorschach and Holtzman pathognomic verbalization scores (V). The Rorschach and Holtzman protocols of 45 psychiatric patients were scored by scorer A and 19 of the Holtzman protocols were scored "blind" by scorer B. Holtzman interscorer reliability was .81 (p     

Toward a resolution of the Rorschach controversy.

Comments are made about the articles comprising the first round of the Special Series on the Rorschach. G. Stricker and J. R. Gold (see record 1999-11130-002) and D. J. Viglione (see record 199911130-003) praised the Rorschach, but they consistently failed to cite negative findings. R. M. Dawes (see record 1999-11130-006) obtained results that provide modest support for the Rorschach, but one of his data sets is flawed. J. B. Hiller et al (see record 1999-11130-005) reported the results of a meta-analysis, but, among other problems, their coders were not blind to the results of all the studies. J. Hunsley and J. M. Bailey (see record 1999-11130-004) made a strong case for concluding that there is no scientific basis for using the Rorschach. Recommendations are made for resolving the Rorschach controversy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance of Personality Assessment Inventory and Rorschach Indices of Schizophrenia in a Public Psychiatric Hospital.

The present study investigated the performance of indices of schizophrenia from the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI-SCZ; L. C. Morey, 1991) and Rorschach (Rorschach SCZI; J. E. Exner, 1993) in a heterogeneous sample of 24 inpatients at a public psychiatric hospital in the southeastern United States. Results indicated modest agreement between the PAI-SCZ and Rorschach SCZI. More important, the PAI-SCZ but not Rorschach SCZI reliably differentiated inpatients with schizophrenic-spectrum diagnoses from inpatients with other psychiatric diagnoses. In settings in which psychotic disorders falling outside the schizophrenic spectrum are common, the PAI-SCZ may be better suited than the Rorschach SCZI to aid in the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meta-analytic methods, the Rorschach, and the MMPI.

In response to concerns described by H. N. Garb et al(see record 2001-05665-003), the authors present the weighted and unweighted means and medians of the effect sizes obtained by J. B. Hiller et al (see record 1999-11130-005). These indices of central tendency are presented separately for MMPI and Rorschach effect sizes, both for all the studies in the meta-analysis and for a 10% trimmed sample designed to obtain more robust estimates of central tendency. The variability of these 4 indices is noticeably greater for the MMPI than for the Rorschach. Meta-analysts must compute, compare, and evaluate a variety of indices of central tendency, and they must examine the effects of moderator variables. The authors also comment briefly on the use of phi versus kappa, combining correlated effect sizes and possible hindsight biases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The comparative validities of the Rorschach and MMPI: A meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis comparing "undirected" and "conceptual" MMPI studies, and conceptual Rorschach and MMPI studies, indicated the following conclusions, (a) Conceptual work more successfully validates an assessment instrument than does undirected investigation, (b) The validatory success of the "average" conceptual Rorschach study is comparable to that of similar MMPI work. This finding suggests that the former's questionable status may be based on sociocultural factors, rather than scientific ones, (c) The "average" conceptual Rorschach or MMPI study has only modest explanatory power, (d) Investigators' misuse of X2 has resulted in exaggerated effect size in many instances where the statistic was employed. It is suggested that future research be judged on the coherence of its inference processes, the specificity of its predictions, and the amount of variance it explains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Advancing the science of psychological assessment: The Rorschach Inkblot Method as exemplar.

This article comments on a series of 5 articles, concerning the utility of the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RTM; R. M. Dawes, see record 1999-11130-006; J. Hiller et al, see record 1999-11130-005; J. Hunsley and J. M. Bailey, see record 1999-11130-004; G. Stricker and J. R. Gold, see record 1999-11130-002; and D. J. Vigilone, see record 1999-11130-003). Two of the articles provide extensive empirical evidence that the RIM has been standardized, normed, made reliable, and validated in ways that exemplify sound scientific principles for developing an assessment instrument. A 3rd article reports a meta-analysis, indicating that the RIM and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory have almost identical validity effect sizes, both large enough to warrant confidence in using these measures. The other 2 articles adduce sketchy data and incomplete literature reviews as a basis for questioning the psychometric soundness of Rorschach assessment. Unwarranted skepticism should not be given credence as an adequate platform from which to challenge abundant evidence that the RIM works very well for its intended purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing.

Reviews the book, Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing by Roy Schafer (1954). This is one of the very few books on psychological testing addressed to the advanced worker. Many have been the books on Rorschach for novitiates, detailing how to administer and score the test; few have been the books on how also to interpret the results; and almost nonexistent have been the books dedicated to content analysis of the Rorschach. This is such a book. Additionally it is, to the best of this reviewer's knowledge, the first book that explicitly attempts to root the entire test firmly in a given personality theory, in this case the neo-analytic ego theory of the Freudian school. This book officially initiates a new trend in Rorschach interpretation, a trend that is heavily indebted to E. Schachtel. Schachtel demonstrated how the test could be utilized to ascertain the individual's attitude toward the test, the examiner, the entire test situation, and even to his own responses toward the inkblots, and how, from this information, the personality structure of the individual could be deduced. Taking his cue from Schachtel, but attempting to go beyond it, Schafer stresses content interpretation to the extent of eliminating most of the usual considerations of scores, percentages, and the like--not that such scores are completely unimportant, Schafer is careful to point out, but because he wishes to demonstrate how much may be achieved without them. Clearly, his book starts, not where other books leave off, but where other books have yet to probe. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of the stimulus in Rorschach responses.

"It is apparent, from the studies reviewed, that the definition of Rorschach stimulus effects is more a task for the future than an accomplishment of the past. In fact, empirical concern with this question appears to have been something of an afterthought with users of the technique. Variation in the stimulus, in order to define an independent variable, has been such a standard procedure in psychological research that it is surprising to find it being applied only during very recent years to an analysis of the Rorschach. Other methods, as indicated, have contributed to the clarification of this problem, but they have not, as yet, gone very deeply." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Psychoanalytic Rorschach Profile: An integration of drive, ego, and object relations perspectives.

Over the last 20 years a growing number of psychoanalytic researchers have explored theoretical constructs and psychopathology through empirical investigation of object representations elicited in projective tests, particularly the Rorschach. A newly designed scoring system, the Psychoanalytic Rorschach Profile (PRP), was created to overcome the limitations of previously published scoring systems. The PRP consists of 10 scales that assess the areas of impulse, ego structure, and object relations. A pilot study to determine reliability and validity of the new scoring system was undertaken by comparing the Rorschach protocols of five borderline and five schizophrenic subjects. Analysis of data results revealed high interrater reliability and significant discrimination of the clinical groups. The potential power of an integrated profile analysis of Rorschach imagery by the PRP is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of test order upon Rorschach human content.

A projective battery was administered to 22 graduate theological students. One group received the Rorschach first followed by the TAT and the DAP. The other group was administered 9 TAT cards and 2 DAP drawings first after which they took the Rorschach. Both groups were matched on the variables of sex, age, IQ, R, and examiner. The group receiving the Rorschach last produced significantly more human content than the group receiving the Rorschach 1st. These findings, if independently confirmed, would indicate that, although previously overlooked, test order may be an important factor in modifying certain projective test scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and Rorschach performance.

"This study was designed to test the validity of certain Rorschach anxiety indices which have been shown to reflect the effects of exposure to a stressful situation, and to examine the generality of certain hypotheses derived from a theoretical framework… . The results provide encouraging evidence as to the validity of certain anxiety indicators and support the theoretical assumptions from which most of them were derived." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of the Rorschach test as a diagnostic criterion.

In his American Psychologist article, Joseph Lerner (see record 1964-01189-001) kindly ascribed to me words which properly belong to Samuel J. Beck. Beck does refer to my Perceptanalysis (Piotrowski & Lewis, 1957), but not on the same page. His words express my past belief. At present my attitude is more complex. It changed after I checked some "blind" Rorschach diagnoses and clinical psychiatric diagnoses on the same patients (Piotrowski, 1950, p. 363), and read published reviews of the reliability and validity of clinical psychiatric diagnoses. These revealed that a considerable percentage of first admission patients, discharged as psychoneurotics, are rediagnosed as schizophrenics after a re-examination several years later. In fact, some schizophrenic conditions escape detection through clinical observations for as long as 10 years, despite intermittent clinical examinations. The Rorschach test definitely is highly sensitive to schizophrenia even though at times some remitted or much improved schizophrenics produce test records failing to give any indication of the psychosis, let alone of the past acute psychotic episodes Lerner stated that "the Rorschach alone is of little assistance unless it is an integral part of the total evaluation." Well, if the Rorschach is never used as an independent diagnostic criterion, we shall never know how good or bad a diagnostic criterion it is. Using it as a part source of information, is to contaminate it (that is why "blind" diagnoses are important). The second point is: It seems advisable to follow the rule that if clinical observations or the Rorschach test--or both--suggest schizophrenia, this diagnosis is likely to be valid. This rule is compatible with Lerner's conclusion that an evaluation based on all available sources of information is better than one which utilizes only one diagnostic criterion, be it test, anamnesis, or clinical examination. To be certain that the Rorschach test is a dependable diagnostic criterion in neuropsychiatry we must have first highly reliable diagnostic test procedures. A digital computer program of Rorschach interpretation, including numerous diagnostic formulae, has been written to achieve objective and perfectly reliable application of the diagnostic test rules to individual cases. The computer program will be submitted to a stringent test of validity. We shall then be in possession of a test which will yield independent and uncontaminated diagnoses. These, in turn, will be available for use independently or as part of a "total evaluation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation of response length to the Holtzman Inkblot Technique.

2 studies are presented which explore the relationship between the mean number of words an S uses in his responses to inkblots and the score pattern he obtains. Significant relations between Response Length (RL) and Holtzman Inkblot Technique scores are demonstrated in samples of juvenile delinquents and college students. 1 experiment is described which indicates that RL is 1 of the factors which determines Movement scores. The role of RL as a variable mediating some of the observed relations between personality and situational variables and inkblot scores is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Rorschach: Facts, fictions, and future.

A large body of empirical evidence supports the reliability, validity, and utility of the Rorschach. This same evidence reveals that the recent criticisms of the Rorschach are largely without merit. This article systematically addresses several significant Rorschach components: interrater and temporal consistency reliability, normative data and diversity, methodological issues, specific applications in the evaluation of thought disorder and suicide, meta-analyses, incremental validity, clinician judgment, patterns of use, and clinical utility. Strengths and weaknesses of the test are addressed, and research recommendations are made. This information should give the reader both an appreciation for the substantial, but often overlooked, research basis for the Rorschach and an appreciation of the challenges that lie ahead. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The social psychology of Rorschach validity research.

An analysis of the research extant in the literature on the validity of the Rorschach, revealed that there was a relationship between where the research was done (academic, nonacademic settings) and type of validity study (construct, criterion, i.e., theoretical or practical validity). Ramifications of these findings with regard to formulation and interpretation of studies on the Rorschach were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hostility in Rorschach content and overt aggressive behavior.

"The Rorschach was administered to 96 hospitalized psychotic veterans, 48 assaultive and 48 nonassaultive, under one of five conditions. Test records were scored for aggressive content… . It was predicted that there is a positive correlation between the behavioral and test measures of aggression, and that the test measure is influenced by the… power and status of the examiner. A significant positive correlation… was found." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rorschach correlates of time estimation.

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that Rorschach scores which have been suggested as measures of the ability to delay gratification of needs are related to the manner in which the passage of time is perceived. 51 men and women were given individual Rorschachs and then were asked to estimate the lengths of various time intervals. Correlations between the Rorschach scores and time estimations revealed that Ss with low % M and high Sum C overestimated the time intervals to a significantly greater extent than those with high % M and low Sum C. Time estimation scores were not related to % FM or % m. These findings appear to support the hypothesis that M is inversely related to the motivation for the rapid passage of time while C is positively related to the same motive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the diagnosis of homosexuality from the Rorschach.

Presents an evaluation of the Rorschach as a means of assessing homosexuality. Using the APA Technical Recommendations as a guide, such factors as the definition of the criterion, the interscorer agreement, the effect of total number of responses on the final score, the stability of the measure over time, the criterion and construct validity, and the overlap between groups are discussed. The major focus is on the scoring system devised by Wheeler, an approach to the assessment of homosexuality which has received most of the research attention to date. Due to such limitations as poor experimental design, methodological and statistical confounding, or the use of statistics with no available probability levels, the findings of a good deal of the research in this area are difficult to interpret. The results of those interpretable studies, however, have typically been found to be favorable. The limitations in the clinical use of the Rorschach as a measure of homosexuality, as well as some directions in which future research might head, are discussed. (29 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of the Rorschach shading determinant.

To test Beck's interpretation of the Rorschach Y determinant, 10 Low Y and 10 High Y male psychiatric inpatients were obtained from 4 hospitals. The hypothesis that High Y Ss are more resigned and inhibited than Low Y Ss was tested with 2 kinds of data about the overt behavior of the sample: interviews with the Ss and interviews with 3 staff members having contacts with them. The Patient Interviews confirmed the hypothesis at the .05 level. The Staff Interviews differentiated the Ss in the predicted direction at the .05 level on small psychiatric wards but not on a large ward. 2 hypotheses about this inconsistency are presented for future investigation. Clinical interpretation of the shading determinant is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Utility of the Rorschach in predicting movement in psychiatric casework.

50 women were administered psychological tests at the time their children were institutionalized for emotional disturbances. Utilizing objective Rorschach signs, psychologists predicted which women would show movement in psychiatric casework. Highly significant agreement was found between the predictions and the actual outcomes of casework based on Hunt-Kogan ratings of movement following at least 1 yr. of casework. It was concluded that this method of using Rorschach data possesses considerable research utility, and that further investigation with these procedures may eventually contribute to increased efficiency in use of clinical facilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)