Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon residues in human milk, placenta, and umbilical cord blood in Beijing, China

This paper provides the results of an investigation on dietary intakes and internal doses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for nonsmoking women from Beijing, China. Concentrations of PAHs were measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for human milk, placenta, and umbilical cord blood samples from 40 nonsmoking women and for 144 composite food samples covering major food categories. Information on food consumption and estimated ingestion doses of PAHs by the cohort was also collected individually. Relationship among the studied human samples and relative importance of breastfeeding to the total exposure dose of infants were addressed. The median (mean and standard deviation) total concentrations of 15 PAHs in human milk, placenta, and umbilical cord blood with (or without) fat normalization were 278 (9.30 ± 5.75), 819 (35.9 ± 15.4), and 1370 (5.521 ± 3.71) ng/g of fat, respectively, and the corresponding levels of benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (B[a]P(equiv)) were 11.2 (0.473 ± 0.605), 16.2 (0.717 ± 0.318), and 13.1 (0.140 ± 0.225) ng/g of fat, respectively. The calculated intake of B[a]P(equiv) by Beijing cohort varied from 0.609 to 4.69 ng·kg(-1)·day(-1) with a median value of 1.93 (2.09 ± 0.921 mean ± standard deviation) ng·kg(-1)·day(-1). Significant correlations were found among human milk, placenta, and umbilical cord blood (p < 0.05) for low-molecular-weight PAHs, indicating selective transfer potential of individual PAHs from mother to fetus. Internal dose of PAHs was not in proportion to amounts of food ingestion, daily dietary intake, lifestyle, and social-demographic characteristics of the participants (p > 0.05). Ingested doses of PAHs (3.00-102 ng·kg(-1)·day(-1)), which were much higher than the inhaled doses (0.152-8.50 ng·kg(-1)·day(-1)), were 3-4 orders of magnitude lower than the recommended reference doses, unlikely to impose any obvious risk based on current knowledge.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in animal-based foods from Shanghai: bioaccessibility and dietary exposure

A total of 175 samples of 18 types of food were collected from markets in Shanghai, China, and the concentrations and bioaccessibility of 15 priority-controlled polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in these samples were determined. The mean concentrations of PAHs varied between 2.4 and 47.1?ng?g^?1 wet weight, with the highest being observed in snail and lowest in chicken. The concentrations were lower than the maximum levels of PAH allowed for food per EU regulations. Among the PAHs measured, phenanthrene was the predominant one. Most of the PAHs originated from pyrogenic sources, analysed using molecular indices. The mean bioaccessibility of PAHs varied from 29.0% to 61.2% as measured by simulating the human gastrointestinal digestion process. Linear relationships between the bioaccessibility and lipid contents were observed for most PAH congeners. The daily intake of PAHs by an average Shanghai resident was 848?ng?day^?1 and decreased to 297?ng?day^?1 when the bioaccessibility of PAHs were considered, demonstrating that most intake might have been overestimated. According to the potency equivalent concentrations and screening values of PAHs, consumption of snail and clam, especially snail, should be limited.     

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through consumption of edible marine species in Catalonia, Spain

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; naphthalene, acenaphtylene, acenaphtene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, and benzo[g,h,i]perylene) were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in samples of 14 edible marine species (sardine, tuna, anchovy, mackerel, swordfish, salmon, hake, red mullet, sole, cuttlefish, squid, clam, mussel, and shrimp) collected in March and April 2005. These species are widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. PAH intake was also estimated for eight age and sex groups of this population. Mussel, clam, and shrimp had the highest PAH concentrations (22.4, 21.5, and 15.9 ng/g of fresh weight, respectively). In contrast, sole (2.5 ng/g of fresh weight) and cuttlefish and squid (both 3.0 ng/g of fresh weight) had the lowest mean concentrations. The highest PAH intake was found in women and girls (5.3 and 5.2 ng/kg/day, respectively), but female adolescents and female seniors had the lowest PAH intakes (3.3 ng/kg/day in both groups). The intake of benzo[a]pyrene and six other PAHs that are probably human carcinogens through consumption of these marine species would be associated with 0.27/10(6) increase in the risk of development of cancer over a 70-year life span.     

Quantification of persistent organic pollutants in dietary supplements using stir bar sorptive extraction coupled with GC-MS/MS and isotope dilution mass spectrometry

ABSTRACT

In this work, we describe a method developed to quantify persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in dietary supplement samples using stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE)-GC-MS/MS-isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS). This method enables accurate, precise, and sensitive quantification of POPs in plant-extract based dietary supplement products commercially available in the United States. When compared with calibration curves, IDMS provided more accurate and precise measurements. The mean error of measurements using this method was 7.24% with a mean RSD of 8.26%. The application of GC-MS/MS enabled approximately two-order-of-magnitude lower limit of quantifications compared with GC-MS. 12 commercially available plant-extract based dietary supplement samples were analysed using this method. PAHs including naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, and benzo[a]pyrene were detected in most of the products and had average concentrations over 1 ng/g. OCPs were detected less frequently than PAHs in these products, and none of the OCPs had mean concentrations over 1 ng/g. The mean toxin concentration of each product was calculated, and the highest value was 3.20 ng/g. These results were compared with existing guidelines and none of the analytes in the samples were found to be above the daily allowable limits.     

Urinary PAH metabolites as biomarkers of exposure in aquatic environments

While immunoassays have been extensively applied to evaluate environmental contamination, to date they have rarely been used for the analysis of biological fluids outside of human medicine. These media are important because pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their metabolites become concentrated in tissues, body fluids, and excreta, thereby offering a measure of exposure to biologically available contaminants. Such analyses also provide a nondestructive tool for monitoring exposure. Crabs (Carcinus maenas) were exposed to phenanthrene and pyrene (separately) at concentrations ranging from 0 to 200 microg L(-1). After 48 h, urine samples were taken and analyzed by immunoassay and UV-fluorescence spectrophotometry. Urinary levels (calibrated against hydroxylated metabolites) proved to be dose dependent for both compounds, and good agreementwas demonstrated between the immunoassay and the fluorescence techniques. The cross reactivity of the immunochemical technique (ELISA) for pyrene and hydroxy-metabolites was lower than for phenanthrene. HPLC analyses demonstrated that urine from the crabs exposed to pyrene contained mainly conjugate PAH metabolites whose concentrations (the sum of the four main pyrene metabolites/conjugates) showed very good agreement with the ELISA (r2 > 0.94) and fluorescence (r2 > 0.91) data. Environmental samples were also analyzed by ELISA and UV-fluorescence, and both techniques detected PAH (mainly petrogenic) contamination in the urine samples from a polluted harbor. These data demonstrate the potential of urine analyses by ELISA and UV-fluorescence to measure exposure of crabs to PAH.     

Volatile organic compounds in human milk: methods and measurements

The present study was conducted to optimize methods for measurement of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by use of headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and to provide a preliminary assessment of levels in human milk. MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether), chloroform, benzene, and toluene were measured from two sources of milk: a North Carolina milk bank (n = 5) and multiple samples from three women within nonsmoking households in inner-city Baltimore, MD (n = 8). In Baltimore, indoor air VOC concentrations in the respective households were also measured by active sampling and thermal desorption gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in selective ion monitoring (GC/MS/SIM) over each of the 3 days of milk collection. By application of these optimized methods, we observed median VOC concentrations in Baltimore human milk of 0.09, 0.55, 0.12, and 0.46 ng/mL for MTBE, chloroform, benzene, and toluene, respectively. For benzene, toluene, and MTBE, milk levels trended with observed indoor air concentrations. On the basis of measured concentrations in air and milk, infant average daily dose by inhalation exceeded ingestion rates by 25-135-fold. Thus, VOC exposure from breast milk is vastly exceeded by that from indoor air in nonsmoking households. Accordingly, strategies to mitigate infant VOC exposure should focus on the indoor air inhalation pathway of exposure.     

Perfluorinated compounds in human milk from Massachusetts, U.S.A

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), notably perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have been reported in human blood. Furthermore, the occurrence of PFCs in the blood of newborn babies, coupled with the need to study the potential association of PFC exposure with birth outcomes in neonates, suggests the need for determining the sources and magnitude of exposure in infants. In this study, nine PFCs were measured in 45 human breast milk samples collected in 2004 from Massachusetts, U.S.A. PFOS and PFOA were the predominant PFCs found at mean concentrations of 131 and 43.8 pg/mL, respectively. Comparison of the ratio of PFOS to PFOA in human milk with the ratios published for human serum from the U.S. female population suggested preferential partitioning of PFOA to milk. Concentrations of PFOA were significantly higher in the milk of mothers nursing for the first time (n = 34) than in the milk of mothers who have previously nursed (n = 8). Based on the estimated body weight and milk intake, the average and highest daily intakes of total PFCs by infants were 23.5 and 87.1 ng/kg bw, respectively. We found that the daily ingestion rates of PFOS and PFOA did not exceed the tolerable daily intake recommended by the U.K. Food Standards Agency. This is the first study to measure the occurrence of PFCs in human milk from the U.S.A.     

Indoor levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in homes with or without wood burning for heating

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of domestic wood burning on indoor levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Indoor and outdoor concentrations of 27 PAHs were measured during wintertime in homes with (n= 13) or without (n 0) wood-burning appliances and at an ambient site in a Swedish residential area where wood burning for space heating is common. Twenty-four hour indoor levels of anthracene, benzo(ghi)fluoranthene, cyclopenta(cd)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, chrysene/triphenylene, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, benzo(ghi)perylene, and coronene were significantly (about 3- to 5-fold) higher in homes with, compared with homes without, wood-burning appliances. The outdoor levels of PAHs were generally higher than the indoor levelsfor all PAHs exceptforthe methylated phenanthrenes. The total PAH cancer potency (sum of BaP equivalents) was significantly higher (about 4 times) in the wood-burning homes compared with the reference homes, with BaP being the largest contributor, while phenanthrene made the largest contribution to the total PAH concentration in indoor and outdoor air. The median indoor BaP level in the wood-burning homes (0.52 ng/m3) was 5 times higher than the Swedish health-based guideline of 0.1 ng/m3, which was also exceeded outdoors on all days (median 0.37 ng/m3).     

[C] Milk, urine and faeces excretion kinetics in lactating goats after an oral administration of [C]polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

The aim of this work was to characterize phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene and TCDD transfer to milk, urine and faeces in lactating goats after a single oral ingestion (2.5 10⁶ Bq) of [¹⁴C]phenanthrene, [¹⁴C]pyrene, [¹⁴C]benzo[a]pyrene or [¹⁴C]2,3,7,8-TCDD.

Seven hours after [¹⁴C] PAHs oral ingestion, a radioactivity peak was detected in plasma for all compounds studied. Regarding excretion routes, three specific types of behaviour were noticed: 2,3,7,8-TCDD was mainly excreted in milk (7.8%) and a large part of radioactivity ingested remained in the organism (71.2%). Phenanthrene and pyrene presented a similar behaviour, with a low milk transfer (1.6% and 1.9%, respectively) and a high excretion through urine (40.4% and 11.4%, respectively) suggesting their metabolization. Benzo[a]pyrene was poorly absorbed (88% of the ingested part of this compound was detected in faeces) and radioactivity due to benzo[a]pyrene was not significantly detected in milk (0.2%).     

Inhalation cancer risk associated with exposure to complex polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures in an electronic waste and urban area in South china

Atmospheric particulate matter samples were collected from May 2010 to April 2011 in a rural e-waste area and in Guangzhou, South China, to estimate the lifetime inhalation cancer risk from exposure to parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), high molecular weight PAHs (MW 302 PAHs), and halogenated PAHs (HPAHs). Seasonal variations in the PAH concentrations and profiles within and between the e-waste and urban areas indicated different PAH sources in the two areas. Benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenz[ah]anthracene, and dibenzo[al]pyrene made the most significant contribution to the inhalation cancer risk. MW 302 PAHs accounted for 18.0% of the total cancer risk in the e-waste area and 13.6% in the urban area, while HPAHs made a minor contribution (<0.1%) in both the areas. The number of lifetime excess lung cancers due to exposure to parent PAHs, MW 302 PAHs, and HPAHs ranged from 15.1 to 1198 per million people in the e-waste area and from 9.3 to 737 per million people in Guangzhou. PAH exposure accounted for 0.02 to 1.94% of the total lung cancer cases in Guangzhou. On average, the inhalation cancer risk in the e-waste area was 1.6 times higher than in the urban area. The e-waste dismantling activities in South China led to higher inhalation cancer risk due to PAH exposure than the urban area.     

GC-MS测定4类食品接触材料中多环芳烃类化合物的溶出暴露水平

建立了食品接触材料中16种多环芳烃类化合物溶出暴露的气相色谱质谱联用(GC-MS)分析方法。样品以异辛烷为模拟物,按实际使用情况进行模拟浸泡实验,所得浸泡液用GC-MS进行分析。结果表明,食品接触材料中4种多环芳烃类化合物(萘、菲、荧蒽和芘)存在一定程度的溶出暴露水平,检出率分别为萘24.3%、菲77.1%、荧蒽48.6%、芘44.3%。其中部分食品用容器多环芳烃的溶出水平最高达33545 ng/kg(萘)、46296 ng/kg(菲)、17739 ng/kg(荧蒽)、15594 ng/kg(芘),并发现常规项目蒸发残渣(正己烷)的溶出与多环芳烃的溶出存在一定的正相关关系。萘、菲、荧蒽、芘等四项多环芳烃的方法平均回收率为76.5%~100.7%,相对标准偏差为1.0%~3.5%,本研究方法具有较好的准确度和精密度。     

Trends in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in the great lakes atmosphere

Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) concentrations were measured in both the vapor and particle phases at seven sites near the Great Lakes as a part of the Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network. Lower molecular weight PAHs, including fluorene, phenanthrene, fluoranthrene, and pyrene, were dominant in the vapor phase, and higher molecular weight PAHs, including chrysene, benzo[a]pyrene, and coronene, were dominant in the particle phase. The highest PAH concentrations in both the vapor and particle phases were observed in Chicago followed by the semiurban site at Sturgeon Point, NY. The spatial difference of PAH concentrations can be explained by the local population density. Long-term decreasing trends of most PAH concentrations were observed in both the vapor and particle phases at Chicago, with half-lives ranging from 3-10 years in the vapor phase and 5-15 years in the particle phase. At Eagle Harbor, Sleeping Bear Dunes, and Sturgeon Point, total PAH concentrations in the vapor phase showed significant, but slow, long-term decreasing trends. At the Sturgeon Point site, which was impacted by a nearby city, particle-phase PAH concentrations also declined. However, most particle-phase PAH concentrations did not show significant long-term decreasing trends at the remote sites. Seasonal trends were also observed for particle-phase PAH concentrations, which were higher in the winter and lower in the summer.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in animal-based foods from Shanghai: bioaccessibility and dietary exposure

A total of 175 samples of 18 types of food were collected from markets in Shanghai, China, and the concentrations and bioaccessibility of 15 priority-controlled polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in these samples were determined. The mean concentrations of PAHs varied between 2.4 and 47.1?ng?g(-1) wet weight, with the highest being observed in snail and lowest in chicken. The concentrations were lower than the maximum levels of PAH allowed for food per EU regulations. Among the PAHs measured, phenanthrene was the predominant one. Most of the PAHs originated from pyrogenic sources, analysed using molecular indices. The mean bioaccessibility of PAHs varied from 29.0% to 61.2% as measured by simulating the human gastrointestinal digestion process. Linear relationships between the bioaccessibility and lipid contents were observed for most PAH congeners. The daily intake of PAHs by an average Shanghai resident was 848?ng?day(-1) and decreased to 297?ng?day(-1) when the bioaccessibility of PAHs were considered, demonstrating that most intake might have been overestimated. According to the potency equivalent concentrations and screening values of PAHs, consumption of snail and clam, especially snail, should be limited.     

Determining air-water exchange, spatial and temporal trends of freely dissolved PAHs in an urban estuary using passive polyethylene samplers

Passive polyethylene (PE) samplers were deployed at six locations within Narragansett Bay (RI, USA) to determine sources and trends of freely dissolved and gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from May to November 2006. Freely dissolved aqueous concentrations of PAHs were dominated by fluoranthene, pyrene, and phenanthrene, at concentrations ranging from tens to thousands of pg/L. These were also the dominant PAHs in the gas phase, at hundreds to thousands of pg/m3. All stations mostly followed the same temporal trends, with highest concentrations (up to 7300 pg/L for sum PAHs) during the second of 11 deployments, coinciding with a major rainstorm. Strong correlations of sum PAHs with river flows and wastewater treatment plant discharges highlighted the importance of rainfall in mobilizing PAHs from a combination of runoff and atmospheric washout. PAH concentrations declined through consecutive deployments III to V, which could be explained by an exponential decay due to flushing with cleaner ocean water during tides. The estimated residence time (tres) of the PAH pulse was 24 days, close to an earlier estimate of tres of 26 days for freshwater in the Bay. Air-water exchange gradients indicated net volatilization of most PAHs closest to Providence. Further south in the Bay, gradients had changed to mostly net uptake of the more volatile PAHs, but net volatilization for the less volatile PAHs. Based on characteristic PAH ratios, freely dissolved PAHs at most sites originated from the combustion of fossil fuels; only two sites were at times affected by fuel spill-derived PAHs.     

Synthetic musk fragrances in human milk from the United States

Synthetic musk compounds are used as additives in many consumer products, including perfumes, deodorants, and detergents. Earlier studies have reported the occurrence of synthetic musks in environmental and wildlife samples collected in the United States. In this study, human breast milk samples collected from Massachusetts, were analyzed for the determination of concentrations of synthetic musks such as musk xylene (1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene), musk ketone (4-tert-butyl-2,6-dimethyl-3,5-dinitroacetophenone), HHCB (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[gamma]-2-benzopyran), AHTN (7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene), and HHCB-lactone, the oxidation product of HHCB. In addition, we estimated the daily intake of synthetic musks by infants based on the ingestion rate of breast milk. Synthetic musks were found in most of the samples analyzed, and the concentrations ranged from < 2 to 150 ng musk xylene/g, < 2 to 238 ng musk ketone/ g, < 5 to 917 ng HHCB/g, < 5 to 144 ng AHTN/g, and < 10 to 88.0 ng HHCB-lactone/g, on a lipid weight basis. The concentrations of HHCB were higher than the concentrations of other synthetic musks in breast milk samples. The mean concentration of HHCB (220 ng/g, lipid weight) was 5 times greater than the concentrations reported 10 years ago for breast milk samples collected in Germany and Denmark. Maternal age was not correlated with the concentrations of musk xylene, musk ketone, HHCB, or AHTN. There was a trend of decreasing concentrations of musk xylene, musk ketone, HHCB, and AHTN, with the number of children previously breast-fed, although the correlation was not significant. Based on average daily ingestion rate of breast milk, an infant is estimated to ingest 297 +/- 229 ng musk xylene, 780 +/- 805 ng musk ketone, 1830 +/- 1170 ng HHCB, 565 +/- 614 ng AHTN, and 649 +/- 598 ng HHCB-lactone per day. The ingestion rate of synthetic musks by infants in the United States is lower than that estimated for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Based on the residue patterns and accumulation features, it can be concluded that the exposure characteristics for synthetic musks are different from those of POPs, and that the major source of exposure to synthetic musks is probably via dermal absorption or inhalation.     

Sources, vertical fluxes, and equivalent toxicity of aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments of the Río de la Plata Estuary, Argentina

Settling particles and bottom sediments collected at 1, 2.5, and 4 km off the metropolitan Buenos Aires coast in the Río de la Plata were analyzed to evaluate the sources and toxicity of resolved (PAHs) and unresolved (AROUCM) aromatic hydrocarbons. PAHs (0003-2.1 microg g(-1)) and AROUCM (0.01-78 microg g(-1)) presented the highest concentrations nearthe Buenos Aires port and sewer and decreasing values up- and downstream and along on- and offshore gradients. Sediment traps deployed in the Central area revealed large aromatic fluxes (1.3 +/- 1.5 and 31 +/- 47 mg m(-2) day(-1) for PAHs and AROUCM). The composition of sedimentary PAHs was dominated by uniformly distributed high molecular weight pyrogenic PAHs (53 +/- 11% fluoranthene, pyrene, and heavier PAHs), followed by diagenetically derived perylene more abundant in less polluted sites (29 +/- 15%) and lower molecular weight petrogenic PAHs (18 +/- 7.1% phenanthrene, anthracene, and methylated compounds), which covaried inversely with perylene. PAH diagnostic ratios indicated a stronger influence of petrogenic discharges close to the shore and the prevalence of combustion of fossil fuels and vehicle emissions over wood in offshore sediments. Sediment cores showed sustained hydrocarbon levels with decreasing proportion of petrogenic PAHs and relative enrichment of pyrogenic components and perylene down to 20-cm depth. PAH toxicity assessment by sediment quality guidelines (SQG) and dioxin-equivalent factors (PAH TEQ: 0.08-395 pg g(-1) dw) identified 1-2.5 km sediments close to the port and sewer as the most affected area. According to SQG, dibenz[a,h]anthracene and pyrene were the most critical PAHs, followed by benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, and chrysene. In contrast, PAH TEQs were dominated by indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, perylene, and benz[a]anthracene which accounted for an average 86 +/- 5.7% of total TEQs.     

Trophic dilution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a marine food web from Bohai Bay, north China

Trophic transfer of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in aquatic ecosystems is an important criterion for assessing their ecological risk. This study analyzed 18 PAHs in phytoplankton/seston, zooplankton, five invertebrate species, five fish species, and one seabird species collected from Bohai Bay, and trophic transfer of the PAHs was determined in the food web, of which the length was approximately 4 on the basis of stable nitrogen isotope values. The concentrations of PAHs (2-64.5 ng/g wet weight) in the marine ecosystem were moderate compared with other marine organisms worldwide, and the PAH compositions exhibited species-specific profiles that were related to trophic levels in some organisms. Significant negative relationships were also found between trophic levels and lipid-normalized concentrations for 10 PAH compounds (acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene + benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[e]pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene, and perylene), and their trophic magnification factors (TMFs) ranged from 0.11 for fluoranthene to 0.45 for acenaphthylene. These results confirm that PAHs undergo trophic dilution in the marine food web, which is likely to be the combined results of low assimilation efficiencies and efficient metabolic transformation at higher trophic levels.     

Effects of grilling and roasting on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef and pork

The concentrations of seven polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) viz. chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, and indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene in 150 samples of commercial meat products were determined. The PAHs were extracted with hexane, purified with Sep-Pak Florisil cartridges and determined by high-performance liquid chromatography using a fluorescence detector. Levels of PAHs were dependent on the method of cooking and type of heat source used. Relatively high levels of PAHs, 10.2 μg/kg on average, were found in charcoal-grilled pork samples. Average PAH levels in beef did not exceed 0.80 μg/kg. Charcoal grilling of pork samples resulted in extremely high levels of benzo(a)pyrene (3.0 μg/kg), while the average benzo(a)pyrene levels in charcoal-grilled beef samples were 0.15 μg/kg. These data can be used to estimate the dietary exposure of consumers to PAHs and to assess any potential risk associated with the ingestion of these foods.     

Indoor and outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in residences surrounding a Söderberg aluminum smelter in Canada

Ambient air in 18 residences surrounding an aluminum smelter were sampled to study the relationship between indoor and outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Objectives of the study were to quantify the indoor distribution of PAHs, indoor/outdoor (I/O) concentration ratios, and the relationship among PAH compounds. Correlation coefficients inside residences suggested an indoor source of 2-3 ring PAHs and an external source of 4-6 ring PAHs. The I/O ratios of 4-6 ring PAHs for homes without any substantial indoor sources were below unity, indicating that the presence of these PAHs was attributable to the aluminum smelter. Least squares linear regression of the coupled measurements without indoor sources of 5-6 ring PAHs resulted in average infiltration efficiencies (P(PAH)) of 0.49, 0.20, and 0.47 for benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, and benzo[g,h,i]perylene, respectively. These P(PAH) values suggest that simultaneous measurements of indoor and outdoor concentrations of PAHs > 4 rings predominantly associated with the fine fraction of particulate matter could provide useful estimates of particle infiltration efficiency. Overall, study results indicate that when an industrial facility is the main source of outdoor 4-6 ring PAHs, the contribution of facility emissions may greatly exceed indoor sources in nonsmoking residences.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products and estimated PAH intake by children and the general population in Estonia

The concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and 11 other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed from 322 commercial, cured meat products and 14 home-grilled meat samples as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme during 2001-2005. The maximum acceptable concentration of 5 µg kg^-1 for benzo[a]pyrene was exceeded in 3.4% of samples. The highest PAH concentrations were detected in home-grilled pork samples. Using of disposable grilling unit resulted in 1.6 times higher PAH concentrations compared to the traditional wood-burning grill. The average intake of benzo[a]pyrene and sum of 12 PAHs from meat products was estimated for children (age 1-16 years) on the basis of an individual food consumption questionnaire and, for the general population, based on national food consumption data. The highest total PAH concentrations detected were 16 µg kg^-1 in smoked meat and ham, 19 µg kg^-1 in smoked sausage and 6.5 µg kg^-1 in smoked chicken samples. Since smoking and grilling are prevalent meat-cooking methods in Estonia, the impact of meat products is assessed to be significant in overall PAH intake.