Impact of improved maize adoption on household food security of maize producing smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

In recent years, maize has gained prominence as an important staple crop in Ethiopia second only to teff in terms of acreage. Most of this is grown by semi-subsistence farm households whose livelihoods are tied to crop production and some livestock keeping. Therefore, an important policy question concerns the impact that the reported maize revolution has had on household food security. This paper answers that question by examining the empirical regularities that explain the adoption of improved maize varieties (IMVs) and how this has impacted household food security in a sample of 2327 maize producing households in 39 districts of Ethiopia. An endogenous switching regression model supported by the dose-response continuous treatment effect method was used to empirically assess the impact of IMV adoption on per capita food consumption expenditure and perceived household food security status. Results show that IMV adoption has a robust and positive impact on per capita food consumption and also significantly increases the probability of a smallholder being in food surplus. The advances in the adoption of improved maize has thus contributed significantly to the food security of maize producing smallholders, confirming the role of crop improvement in contributing to food security of agrarian households.     

The role of wild vegetables in household food security in South Africa: A review

Wild vegetables are a common and important source of food and nutrition in the rural areas where they can be harvested from backyard gardens, animal houses or agricultural fields. These plant species which were initially primary sources of food in many societies have been marginalised in favour of exotic vegetables. Micronutrient deficiencies, especially in children, continue to be a global cause for concern and yet numerous reports have revealed the high nutritional value of wild vegetables. If they are incorporated into the diet, wild vegetables can alleviate some of the micronutrient deficiency concerns. In this paper, literature on ethnobotanical knowledge of wild vegetables in South Africa is reviewed with a view to reveal their potential role in household food security. The outcome of the literature search revealed only 103 plant species from a total of 33 families in five out of nine provinces. In South Africa the cultivation of these wild vegetables has so far been limited to only two provinces. These important plant foods are clearly underutilised although they potentially have a big role to play in food security. Wild vegetables need to be revitalised and brought back into the mainstream diet so that they can play their role in food security. More work needs to be done to document these important food plants in all the provinces of South Africa to create an updated inventory. If these species continue to be neglected and underappreciated, knowledge about them may soon be lost in time and never be recovered.     

Preface: Challenges and opportunities for enhancing food security in Kenya

Achieving sustainable food security in Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the main challenges facing African governments and the international community. The 2007?C2008 food crisis and ongoing chronic hunger problems clearly demonstrate that millions of people on the continent, including in relatively stable countries such as Kenya, are dangerously vulnerable to economic, political and climatic shocks that threaten food availability and accessibility. At the heart of the strategies to build resilience and tackle food insecurity is the need for effective institutional and policy frameworks that can support local innovations while taking into account the biophysical, social and economic constraints within which rural livelihoods operate. The papers included in this Special Issue of Food Security support the view that for food security initiatives in Kenya to be effective, they must embrace solutions that are equitable, generalizable and ecologically sound to ensure sustainability. Ultimately, to improve innovation and technology adoption, a systems approach that allows women and men, wealthy and poor farmers to engage with scientific and political elites in the design and implementation of food-related research and development initiatives must be embraced. There is also the need to develop tools and approaches that can assist smallholder farmers, researchers, policy makers and other stakeholders to share a better understanding of the multiple factors driving food insecurity and hindering the implementation of effective policies and institutions.     

The role of wild edible plants in household food security among transitioning hunter-gatherers: evidence from the Philippines

The Ati Negrito people, a recently settled hunter-gatherer indigenous group in the Philippines, are faced once more with the challenge of adapting to new settlements and gradually declining areas of prime food sources. The research is a documentation of uses and importance of wild edible plants the group collects and consumes as a transitioning hunter-gatherer community. Interviews were conducted with 44 female key informants representing 40 households. A total of 69 wild edible plant taxa in 31 plant families were recorded. Informant consensus revealed that many wild food plants are prioritized for their caloric content and dietary structure to complement oftentimes monotonous diets. Some of the recorded edibles were found to be non-native weedy introductions, signs of mechanisms for coping with environmental and socio-cultural changes. Preferences for certain wild edible plants also revealed that non-food factors underlay food choices. Significant factors that influence food knowledge and selection appeared to be household income, acculturation and past experiences of food scarcity. Further studies, however, have yet to provide concrete evidence that there is erosion of traditional knowledge. Regardless, determining informant confidence in selecting wild food plants has emphasized that preferences are decided based on socio-economic, cultural and ecological conditions.     

Adaptation to climate change and the impacts on household food security among rural farmers in uMzinyathi District of Kwazulu-Natal,South Africa

It is anticipated that smallholder subsistence farmers will face severe negative impacts from climate change, with household food security being seriously affected. This paper examines the methods of adaptation to climate change used by smallholder farmers and their impacts on household food security. The necessity to adapt to climate change is caused by a combination of sensitivity and exposure and the success in doing so depends on adaptive capacity. Household food security was determined using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Of the surveyed households, 95 % were aware that climate is changing and expected severe impacts on their crop production systems. Households undertake crop and soil management practices in order to respond to the changing climate. About 83 % of households anticipated that they would alter their livelihoods systems in response to climate change, with 59 % of households indicating that government grants would play an important role in this. Of those assessed, 97 % were severely food insecure and the remaining 3 % were moderately food insecure. Householders were worried about the negative impacts of climate change which included droughts, floods and soil erosion. Householders who were vulnerable to climate change recorded high levels of food insecurity. Decline in prices of farm products, increases in costs of farm inputs and anxiety over occurrence of livestock diseases exacerbated household food insecurity. Information will play a critical role in mitigating the impacts of climate change on household food security but farmers should also be assisted with appropriate input packages, such as seeds and fertilizers that can help them adapt effectively.     

Structure and properties of urban household food demand in Nairobi,Kenya: implications for urban food security

Urban household food insecurity continues to be a major problem in many urban households of Sub-Saharan Africa. The ineffectiveness of policies addressing the problem has hinged in particular on the paucity of information about consumption patterns under changing economic conditions. Elasticities of food demand were estimated through the Linear Approximated Almost Ideal Demand System (LA/AIDS) and inferences about access to food were drawn. Shifts in consumption were evident when changes occurred in income, prices and household demography. As the urban poor are sensitive to variation in food prices and income, they should be cushioned against their negative effects in order for their access to food to be enhanced and hence their food security improved. Dairy and dairy products and wheat and wheat products were identified as subsidy carriers which would improve the nutrition of the urban poor. These results provide guidance for the design of food security and nutrition strategies and programs at the micro and macro-economic levels.     

Water security and rural household food security: empirical evidence from the Mzinyathi district in South Africa

This paper aimed to investigate the determinants of water security in an irrigation scheme, and how this water security level subsequently affects the farmer’s household food security level. Water security refers to access by the irrigating households to sufficient and reliable water to meet the agricultural needs and their ability to assert the water rights against other parties. A random sample of 185 irrigating households was interviewed in Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme in Mzinyathi District, South Africa. Data were analysed using principal component analysis and ordinary least squares. The empirical results indicated that factors such as farmer’s age, off-farm income, farmer association membership, use of pumps, location on the upper-end of the canal and training increase household water security. Conversely, factors such as occurrence of conflicts and location at the tail-end of the canal were found to decrease household water security. This study highlights the importance of strengthening farmer organisational capacity and local institutions for enhancing the water security status of farmers in smallholder irrigation schemes. The results also indicated that perceived water security has a positive impact on household food consumption per adult equivalent. Therefore, for better impact on household food security, the study recommends that priority should be placed in ensuring household water security, not just investing in the physical irrigation scheme and irrigation participation. The human and social dimensions need to receive priority. Training farmers in collective water governance and water conservation techniques to improve water-use efficiency as well as introducing motorised pumps would take irrigators a long way in enhancing their water security.     

The role of wild vegetable species in household food security in maize based subsistence cropping systems

Wild vegetables (WV) are an important source of food in the maize based subsistence farming sector of rural South Africa. Their main role is as relish as they are used as an accompaniment for staple cereal based diets. They are generally reported to be rich in micronutrients. Although they may be consumed in small quantities, they influence the intake of cereal staples, manage hunger and play a central role in household food security for the poorer rural groups. Mixing several WV species in one meal contributes to dietary diversity in terms of more vegetable types as well as in terms of choice of relish. For some very poor families WV are substitutes for some food crops. The seasonal occurrence of these vegetables leaves many families without a food source during the off-season. Wild vegetables increase agro-biodiversity at the household level. This agro-biodiversity helps in buffering against the accumulation and multiplication of pests and diseases and provides important cover for the soil. Further research on agronomic, social and economic dimensions is required to understand the roles of WV in subsistence farming systems in South Africa.     

Livestock and food security in the Arab region: policy framework

Livestock keeping constitutes a traditional and important economic activity in the Arab region. This paper aims to assess the role of the Arab livestock sector in food and nutritional security in terms of demand, supply, national policies and trade in the light of major environmental constraints, with data illustrations from Morocco (Mediterranean country) and Saudi Arabia (oil-rich country). Demand for livestock products is increasing in the Arab region driven by the growing population with different degrees of increased urbanization and wealth. On the supply side, local livestock production is largely based on rainfed mixed and pastoral livestock systems making it vulnerable to the effects of climate change and water scarcity. Intensive systems, where present, are mostly dependent on feed imports with an important water footprint. Livestock production is further conditioned by a history of arbitrary national policies that had a particularly negative effect on small producers and contributed to the degradation of national resources. Arab countries rely on trade from the world market to fill their gap in animal feed and livestock products with varying trading power based on wealth and the availability of free trade agreements. Following analysis of the sector, the paper concludes with the proposition of a pro-poor policy framework for the development of a sustainable Arab livestock sector.     

Key factors influencing food security of smallholder farmers in Tanzania and the role of cassava as a strategic crop

Due to beneficial characteristics of cassava such as robustness and versatility for multiple uses, it can have a major role in contributing to local food security. The objective of this study was to find out whether and how the cultivation of cassava benefits smallholder farmers in the regions of Dodoma and Morogoro, Tanzania. In addition, the study assessed the main factors that support or threaten food security of smallholder farmer households in the survey region and analysed whether cassava cultivation could counteract them. We applied a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data were provided by a comprehensive household survey of the Trans-SEC project, and qualitative data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews. To approach the complexity of our chosen food security definition, three approaches for household food security measurement were applied. These covered the components of food availability, food access, and food utilization. Additionally, dependent variables for regression models were constructed and a multivariate analysis was run. The results show that cassava contributes to food security in the households, but achieving food security through cassava cultivation was constrained by several factors, including pests, missing markets, poor processing, social perception and lack of knowledge. Besides these, other factors affecting food security in the study area were found, uncovering some roots of local food insecurity and serving as a basis for further research and action on how to enhance food security.     

Beyond Copenhagen: mitigating climate change and achieving food security through soil carbon sequestration

This article explains the technical potential of C (carbon) sequestration in world soils for mitigating climate change and describes its positive impacts on agronomic productivity and global food security through the improvement of soil quality. It also supports the idea of economic development through the provision of payments to farmers in developing countries for their stewardship and enhancement of ecosystem services. These would be generated by their use of recommended management practices for improved agriculture. The technical potential of C sequestration in soils of terrestrial ecosystems and restoration of peat soils is ∼3 Petagram (Pg) C/yr (i.e. 3 × 10¹⁵ g = 3 × 10⁹ tonnes C/yr) or 50 ppm draw down of atmospheric CO₂ by the end of the 21st century by increasing the soil C pool at a rate of 1 Mg/ha/yr. Depending upon climate and other variables, this could increase cereal and food legume production in developing countries by 32 million Mg/yr and roots and tubers by 9 million Mg/yr. It is precisely this strategy which would have received broad political support at the COP-15 meeting in Copenhagen in December 2009 from developing countries, emerging economies and the industrialized world. Addressing the issue of food-insecurity and global warming through sequestration of C in soils and the biota, along with payments to resource-poor farmers for the ecosystem services rendered, would be a timely win-win strategy.     

The role of livestock diversification in ensuring household food security under a changing climate in Borana,Ethiopia

While food insecurity is a growing concern across the developing nations, accentuated by climate variability and change, it could be even worse for pastoralists given their unpredictable exposure to climate risks. The Borana herders experience food insecurity as a result of recurring droughts causing huge losses of cattle, and are thus increasingly shifting from cattle pastoralism to multi-species herding. The present study examines the role of livestock diversification in combating household food insecurity using herders’ perceptions, a modified household food insecurity access scale (mHFIAS) and dietary diversity score. Herders perceived child growth, adult height and body condition to be decreasing as a result of declining milk production and changing dietary trends. Results also revealed a high level of seasonal food insecurity and low dietary diversity with the majority (81 %) consuming one to three food groups. Livestock diversification was a major factor affecting household food security. Households practising diversification had significantly fewer months of food deficit (2.3 vs. 3.8), lower mHFIAS (5.5 vs. 8.7) and a higher average off-take in the form of livestock sales (7.4 vs. 4.0) than non-diversified ones. Diversification improved dietary intake of specific food groups and the average number of meals consumed per day. While fruits, eggs and fish are not part of the Borana diet, a large number of respondents consumed no vegetables (93 %) or meat (96 %), potentiating the risk of micronutrient deficiencies. This study highlights the particular significance of livestock diversification, among other socio-demographic factors, in attaining food security under a changing climate in the study area.     

Vegetable breeding in Africa: constraints,complexity and contributions toward achieving food and nutritional security

Many Africans are presently confronted with nutritional insecurity as their diets are often deficient in essential vitamins and minerals owing to lack of sufficient consumption of fruit and vegetables. This results from problems of availability, affordability and lack of knowledge. There has been a substantive, long-term underinvestment in research and development of the horticultural sector in Africa with particular reference to those indigenous crops which are naturally high in nutritious vitamins and minerals. Lack of breeding effort, ineffective seed supply systems and an inadequate information, regulatory and policy framework have all contributed to the widespread occurrence of malnutrition on the continent. However, public sector research, development and policy amelioration efforts supported by a nascent private seed supply sector are now showing progress. Many new, improved, nutrient-dense indigenous and standard vegetable varieties are being released for which small-holder farmers are finding growing markets in both rural and urban settings. If such developments continue favourably for the next decade, it is expected that progress towards a reduction in poverty and malnutrition in Africa will be marked.     

The role of the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in the attainment of household food security in Kenya: A policy and organizational review

The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is a government organization mandated to conduct research into, among others, crop and livestock production and marketing. In 2009, it launched a new strategic plan for the period 2009?C2014, together with its implementation framework. This strategic plan aims to position KARI as a facilitator of growth in the agricultural sector in order to enable an average growth rate of 7?% per year over the next 5?years, as stipulated in the Kenya Vision 2030 policy. This paper reviews KARI??s new strategic plan within the context of recent policy reforms at national, regional and global levels. It specifically examines the strategy in the context of Vision 2030, the Kenya Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS), the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP), and the Millennium Development Goals. The paper then discusses KARI??s newly adopted Agricultural Product Value Chain (APVC) approach, which is expected to position KARI strategically as a key player within the National Agricultural Research System (NARS). It also highlights progress in the implementation of the new strategic plan and APVC approach with specific emphasis on partnerships, markets and gender as key focus areas and the implications of these on food security in Kenya.     

Determinants of rural household food security: a comparative analysis of African and Asian studies

This paper reviews the determinants of rural household food security in Africa and Asia where more than 88% of the world's undernourished people live. A conceptual model is proposed on the basis of the three widely known components of food security: food availability, accessibility and utilisation. This model is used to select a total of 40 peer‐reviewed studies carried out over the last decade (20 each from Africa and Asia). A meta‐analysis technique is then used to identify which determinants of food security have been highlighted and how well the causality is demonstrated. Food availability is the most studied component in both regions, followed by food accessibility, while food utilisation is the most neglected component in these studies. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

Impact of a participatory agroecological development project on household wealth and food security in Malawi

This paper presents the impacts of a participatory agroecological development project on food security and wealth levels. The Malawi Farmer to Farmer Agroecology project (MAFFA) encourages farmer experimentation, community involvement and farmer-to-farmer teaching on agroecology, nutrition and gender equity. Recent international assessments of agriculture have highlighted the urgent need for changes in farming practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to land degradation, high levels of food insecurity and anticipated climate change impacts. Agroecological approaches have shown great potential to address these multiple needs. Using a longitudinal panel survey data and propensity score matching to account for selection bias in project participation, we analyzed the impact of the project on household income and food security in Malawi in 2012 (Wave 1 = 1200 households) and in 2014 (Wave 2 = 1000 households). We used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for impact evaluation. Estimates of average treatment-effects using difference in difference methods showed that participating in MAFFA has led to a significant increase in household wealth (β = 3.54, p = 0.01) and a large reduction in food insecurity (β = ?3.21, p = 0.01) compared to non-participants, after 2 years, even after accounting for covariates and selection bias. These results indicate that agroecological methods combined with farmer led knowledge exchanges can be welfare enhancing, both in terms of food security and in terms of income for family farm households. Agroecological approaches should be promoted through upscaling of farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchanges, community involvement and attention to nutrition and social equity to enhance farmer learning and household welfare benefits.     

Impact of a homestead gardening program on household food security and empowerment of women in Bangladesh

This paper assesses the additional benefits of a homestead gardening program designed to control vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh. In February and March 2002, data were collected on the food security and social status of women from 2,160 households of active and former participants in the gardening program and from control groups in order to assess the impact and sustainability of the program. The proportions of active and former-participant households that gardened year-round were fivefold and threefold, respectively, higher than that of the control group (78% and 50% vs. 15%). In a three-month period, the households of active participants produced a median of 135 kg and consumed a median of 85 kg of vegetables, while the control households produced a median of 46 kg and consumed a median of 38 kg (p <.001). About 64% of the active-participant households generated a median garden income of 347 taka (US$1 = 51 taka), which was spent mainly on food, and 25% of the control households generated 200 taka in the same period (p < .001). The garden production and income levels of formerly participating households three years after withdrawal of program support were much higher than those of the control households, illustrating the sustainability of the program and its ability to increase household food security. Significantly more women in active- and former-participant households than in control households perceived that they had increased their economic contribution to their households since the time the program was launched in their subdistricts (> 85% vs. 52%). Similar results were found for the level of influence gained by women on household decision-making. These results highlight the multiple benefits that homestead gardening programs can bring and demonstrate that these benefits should be considered when selecting nutritional and development approaches targeting poor households.