R-curve behavior of BaTiO3- and PZT ceramics under the influence of an electric field applied parallel to the crack front

The fracture resistance curves (R-curves) of BaTiO₃ and commercial PZT–PIC 151 were measured with compact tension specimens under the influence of an electric field applied parallel to the crack front. A strong influence of the electric field on the starting and plateau value was found as well as on the length of the R-curve. Generally a toughness increase was detected with increasing electric field. The toughening effect is estimated from the change in crack tip stress intensity induced by ferroelastic domain switching near the crack tip using the weight function formalism developed for stress-induced transformation toughening of zirconia ceramics. In order to obtain a quantitative prediction of toughening, ferroelastic and ferroelectric properties were measured.     

Interactions between domain switching and crack propagation in poled BaTiO3 single crystal under mechanical loading

In this paper, the interactions between the crack propagation and corresponding domain switching in ferroelectric single crystal under mechanical loading were investigated. An experimental setup with a polarized light microscope (PLM) was designed and constructed to in situ observe the crack propagation in poled BaTiO₃ specimens subjected to three-point-bending loading. The observed domain switching was stimulated by the intensive stress field near the crack tip, and the theoretical R-curve taking into account the domain switching toughening agrees well with the experimental results quantitatively. It is confirmed from the actual switched zone that the 90° domain switching is the major mechanism of the fracture toughening, and the apparent fracture toughness increases by 150% in the BaTiO₃ single crystal specimen.     

Toughening effects quantification in glass matrix composite reinforced by alumina platelets

A borosilicate glass matrix composite containing alumina platelets was considered to investigate toughening mechanisms and crack tip behavior in dispersion reinforced brittle matrix composites. Fracture toughness was determined by applying the chevron notched specimen technique, and fractographic analysis was employed to reveal the active toughening mechanisms with increasing content of reinforcement. A roughness-induced shielding effect has been quantified to prove the relation between fracture toughness and fracture surface roughness. Theoretical calculations of the fracture toughness enhancement based on a modified crack deflection model developed by Faber and Evans, combined with the influence of the increase in Young’s modulus, were found to be in good agreement with experimental data. An effect of residual stresses upon toughening of the investigated composite is discussed.     

Ferroelasticity and hysteresis in LaCoO3 based perovskites

Perovskite-type ABO₃ (where A=La, Ca; B=Co) ceramics are very promising materials for oxygen separation membrane and solid oxide fuel cells applications. However, their mechanical behavior has not yet been adequately studied. We studied the mechanical performance of perovskite ceramics using a combination of microindentation, compression, and bending. Our work demonstrated ferroelastic hysteretic behavior during indentation and compression loading in LaCoO₃ based perovskites. This behavior can be caused by domain reorientation and/or phase transformation. Domain switching under the compression loading in LaCoO₃ based perovskites has been demonstrated by XRD. Nonlinearity during fracture toughness measurements was observed in the dense La_0.8Ca_0.2CoO₃ perovskite. Such nonlinearity can be assigned to the domain switching or the phase transformation during crack propagation. This might be a reason of a higher fracture toughness of this material compared to non-ferroelastic composition.     

Crack tip process zone domain switching in a soft lead zirconate titanate ceramic

Non-180° domain switching leads to fracture toughness enhancement in ferroelastic materials. Using a high-energy synchrotron X-ray source and a two-dimensional detector in transmission geometry, non-180° domain switching and crystallographic lattice strains were measured in situ around a crack tip in a soft tetragonal lead zirconate titanate ceramic. At K_I = 0.71 MPa m^1/2 and below the initiation toughness, the process zone size, spatial distribution of preferred domain orientations, and lattice strains near the crack tip are a strong function of direction within the plane of the compact tension specimen. Deviatoric stresses and strains calculated using a finite element model and projected to the same directions measured in diffraction correlate with the measured spatial distributions and directional dependencies. Some preferred orientations remain in the crack wake after the crack has propagated; within the crack wake, the tetragonal 0 0 1 axis has a preferred orientation both perpendicular to the crack face and toward the crack front.     

Phase field simulations of ferroelastic toughening: The influence of phase boundaries and domain structures

Limited reliability of ferroelectric-based actuators restricts their use in high-performance applications, where stress-induced cracking of ferroelectric ceramics often leads to fatal failure. The main limiting factors are the relatively small fracture toughness and the brittle nature of ferroelectrics. However, ferroelectrics naturally exhibit fracture toughening (so called ferroelastic toughening) due to stress induced reorientation of non-180° domains that inhibits crack propagation. Here we present a phase-field study of ferroelastic toughening based on Landau–Ginzburg–Devonshire theory. The primary qualitative factors that control the magnitude of ferroelastic toughening are identified and discussed.     

Frequency effects on fatigue crack growth and crack tip domain-switching behavior in a lead zirconate titanate ceramic

The microstructural origins of the effect of frequency on the electrical fatigue behavior of pre-cracked soft ferroelectric Pb(Zr_0.48Ti_0.52)O₃ is investigated by means of a high spatial resolution hard X-ray synchrotron source. It is found that there is a strong link between the frequency of the applied bipolar field, domain-switching behavior in terms of ferroelastic reorientation of the domains around the crack tip and the resultant crack growth. The crack growth is accentuated under increased ferroelastic switching and, in particular, found to be more pronounced under low-frequency loading. The concept of domain wall viscoelasticity is applied to explain why lower frequencies accelerate crack growth under a bipolar electric field.     

Aging and fracture of human cortical bone and tooth dentin

Mineralized tissues, such as bone and tooth dentin, serve as structural materials in the human body and, as such, have evolved to resist fracture. In assessing their quantitative fracture resistance or toughness, it is important to distinguish between intrinsic toughening mechanisms, which function ahead of the crack tip, such as plasticity in metals, and extrinsic mechanisms, which function primarily behind the tip, such as crack bridging in ceramics. Bone and dentin derive their resistance to fracture principally from extrinsic toughening mechanisms, which have their origins in the hierarchical microstructure of these mineralized tissues. Experimentally, quantification of these toughening mechanisms requires a crack-growth resistance approach, which can be achieved by measuring the crack-driving force (e.g., the stress intensity) as a function of crack extension (“R-curve approach”). Here this methodology is used to study the effect of aging on the fracture properties of human cortical bone and human dentin in order to discern the microstructural origins of toughness in these materials.     

Effects of rate on crack growth in a rubber-modified epoxy

The rate-dependent fracture behavior of a 10-phr rubber-modified epoxy was investigated using double-cantilever-beam tests at various crosshead speeds. Dramatic rate effects were observed in the R-curve behavior and in the relationship between the applied energy-release rate and the crack velocity. Furthermore, a transition between fracture with toughening mechanisms operating (kinetic crack growth) and brittle behavior (dynamic crack growth) was observed. This transition depended on the crack velocity and applied energy-release rate. Such behavior is expected to depend on how the intrinsic toughness and/or the extrinsic toughening mechanisms are influenced by strain rate. It was shown that the size of the process zone was only weakly dependent on the crack velocity until the onset of dynamic fracture. Furthermore, the extent of void growth was virtually independent of the crack velocity in the kinetic regime. These results appear to rule out the notion that crack-tip shielding is significantly affected by rate effects in this rubber-modified epoxy. Rather, the rate effects may arise from a rate-dependent intrinsic toughness. It was observed that the intrinsic toughness decreased significantly with increasing crack velocity. The crack instability was shown to be associated with an abrupt cessation of the development of the process zone, with both cavitation and void growth being totally suppressed.     

外场作用下BaTiO_3单晶裂纹扩展和畴变

通过偏振光显微镜对连续应力和恒电场作用下的BaTiO_3单晶中的裂纹扩展和畴变过程进行原位观察.结果表明.在连续应力的作用下,裂尖处应力集中导致出现畴变带,裂纹与畴变带垂直相交,畴带和裂纹一起向前移动,畴变在先,裂纹扩展在后;在恒电场作用下,畴变引起的不协调应变导致电致裂纹扩展,畴变始终发生在裂纹扩展之前.裂纹向前扩展时不断的切过前方的畴带,直到不再有畴变发生时裂纹停止扩展.     

Creep effects on crack growth in a Mo–Si–B alloy

Crack growth behavior during monotonic and cyclic loading at elevated temperature is affected by creep and/or by environment and, therefore, high-temperature toughness and fatigue response can be temperature and loading-rate dependent. This paper reports on the effect of loading rate on fracture toughness at high temperatures for a two-phase Mo–Si–B alloy; the observed response is understood by examining the interaction of the advancing crack with the microstructure, and the evolution of microstructure ahead of the crack tip as a consequence of the crack-tip field. Parallel studies were also performed under cyclic loading conditions by subjecting compact tension specimens to sinusoidal and trapezoidal loading waveforms. In certain cases, the microstructure ahead of the crack tip revealed several instabilities (recrystallization, grain growth and creep cavitation). Finite element analysis revealed strain localization ‘pockets’ ahead of the crack tip, which are thought to provide the driving force for the observed microstructural instabilities.     

Influence of the metal particle size on toughness of Al2O3/Mo composite

Two kinds of Al₂O₃/Mo (20 vol.%) have been prepared, containing fine and coarse metal particles, respectively. The load–displacement curves, of these two composites, were measured during stable crack propagation and the corresponding R-curves were calculated from standard fracture mechanics equations. Using an in situ microprobe fluorescence technique it was also possible to measure the evolution of microscopic bridging stresses that develop during crack propagation and relate them to the size of the metal particles embedded in the matrix. Experimental results highlight that the interface of small Mo particles (less than 5 μm) is easily fractured thus reducing the maximum toughness achieved. Coarse Mo particles enhanced the bridging effect, and as a consequence, a higher toughness value was achieved. The toughening effect in these composites can be reasonably explained by considering both the fracture mode and the fracture strength of the bridging sites, as measured by in situ fluorescence spectroscopy.     

Study on crack propagation in ferroelectric single crystal under electric loading

The crack propagation in ferroelectric single crystals subjected to electric fields was studied experimentally and theoretically. An in situ observation of crack propagation and domain switching near the crack tip in a poled PMN–PT62/38 single crystal was carried out using polarized optical microscopy. It was found that a pure negative electric field leads to a larger domain switching zone near the crack tip than a positive one does. A negative electric field below the coercive field can cause crack propagation, while no crack growth was observed for a positive electric field far larger than the coercive field. A fracture model based on energy analysis was developed which indicates that the energy variation due to the domain switching provides the thermodynamic driving force for the crack propagation under pure electric loading. The critical electrical loading for the crack growth determined by this model agrees well with experiments.     

逆转变奥氏体对中Mn钢低温冲击断裂过程的影响

对超低碳7%Mn钢进行了不同温度的回火处理,测定了组织中的逆转变奥氏体含量及其在-60、-100 ℃下的冲击吸收能量,并观察了冲击断口附近的显微组织,进而讨论了逆转变奥氏体含量及稳定性对试验钢低温冲击断裂过程的影响。结果表明:逆转变奥氏体对试验钢低温韧性的影响具有两面性,一方面能够通过相变缓解裂纹尖端的应力集中,改善钢的低温韧性,另一方面,当其稳定性较低时易于在应力作用下大量发生马氏体相变,导致钢低温韧性降低。冲击断口附近产生明显塑性变形的区域都较小,表明在冲击断裂过程中难以通过大范围的TRIP效应实现韧化。     

Fracture processes and mechanisms of crack growth resistance in human enamel

Human enamel has a complex micro-structure that varies with distance from the tooth’s outer surface. But contributions from the microstructure to the fracture toughness and the mechanisms of crack growth resistance have not been explored in detail. In this investigation the apparent fracture toughness of human enamel and the mechanisms of crack growth resistance were evaluated using the indentation fracture approach and an incremental crack growth technique. Indentation cracks were introduced on polished surfaces of enamel at selected distances from the occlusal surface. In addition, an incremental crack growth approach using compact tension specimens was used to quantify the crack growth resistance as a Junction of distance from the occlusal surface. There were significant differences in the apparent toughness estimated using the two approaches, which was attributed to the active crack length and corresponding scale of the toughening mechanisms.     

Nonlinear electric–mechanical behavior and micromechanics modelling of ferroelectric domain evolution

Domains exist in ferroelectric ceramics. External loads, such as electric field and stress, can cause domain switching. Domain switching always results in nonlinear ferroelectricity and ferroelasticity of ferroelectric ceramics. In this investigation, nonlinear electric–mechanical behavior related to ferroelectric and ferroelastic domain switching is experimentally and theoretically studied. In the experimental work, the electric–mechanical response of a soft PZT ferroelectric ceramic subjected to combined electric–mechanical loads was observed. The effect of different compressive stress levels on the electromechanical response was examined. In the theoretical modelling, the orientation of each domain is defined by its local coordinate relative to a fixed global coordinate. Orientation distribution function (ODF) is used to describe the domain pattern. For mathematical simplicity, the Reuss average is used in the modelling. According to the proposed theory, a domain has different Gibbs' energy at different orientation states and the energy difference forms the domain switching driving force. The domain pattern and its evolution are determined by the joint action of the domain switching driving force and the dissipation during domain switching. In ferroelectricity and ferroelasticity, 90° and 180° domain switchings play different roles and have different switching dissipations associated with them. A criterion considering the difference between the 90° switching and the 180° switching is established by the thermodynamic approach. There is an agreement between theoretical and experimental results. It should be pointed out that the micromechanical model proposed in this paper is restricted to ferroelectric materials exhibiting transformation from cubic to tetragonal only.     

PROBABILISTIC MODELING OF BRITTLE FRACTURE WITH PRIOR DUCTILE CRACK EXTENSION

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C1-controlled creep crack growth by grain boundary cavitation

Quasi steady-state creep crack growth is widely associated with the nucleation and growth of voids on grain boundaries ahead of the crack tip. In this paper, a micromechanics-based constitutive law is used to study the velocity-dependent fracture toughness of porous solids under extensive creep conditions. Void growth and coalescence in the fracture process zone is modeled by a nonlinear viscous microporous strip of cell elements. Under steady-state crack growth, two dissipative processes contribute to the macroscopic fracture toughness: the work of separation in the fracture process zone, and creep dissipation in the background material. Under extensive creep conditions, the competition between these two processes produces an inverted U-shaped C¹–velocity curve. The effects of rate sensitivity, initial porosity as well as hydrogen attack on fracture toughness are studied. The numerically simulated fracture toughness vs. crack velocity curves show good agreement with existing experimental results.     

Phase field simulations of polarization switching-induced toughening in ferroelectric ceramics

Polarization switching-induced shielding or anti-shielding of an electrically permeable crack in a mono-domain ferroelectric material with the original polarization direction perpendicular to the crack is simulated by a phase field model based on the time-dependent Ginzburg–Landau equation. The domain wall energy and the long-range mechanical and electrical interactions between polarizations are taken into account. The phase field simulations exhibit a wing-shape-switched zone backwards from the crack tip. The polarization switching-induced internal stresses shield the crack tip from applied mechanical loads. A local J-integral is numerically calculated and used as a failure criterion to illustrate the polarization switching-toughening. The result indicates that an applied uniform electric field parallel to the original polarization direction reduces the apparent fracture toughness, while an applied uniform electric field anti-parallel to the original polarization direction enhances it.     

A model of heating a flux-cored wire in arc metallizing and analysis of the structure of the coating

Summary

This paper describes HAZ‐notched CTOD tests of multipass welds in SMYS = 420–460 MPa class high‐strength steels for offshore structural applications. The weld metal strength overmatch causes different fracture behaviour depending on the actual CGHAZ toughness. When the CGHAZ is completely embrittled, the weld metal strength overmatch leads to the lower bound critical CTOD value. This is due to elevation of the local stress in the CGHAZ caused by the restraint effect of the overmatched weld metal. The fracture surface is generally flat, and brittle fracture originates from the CGHAZ sampled by the fatigue crack front. A larger fraction of the CGHAZ along the crack front gives a smaller critical CTOD value. When the CGHAZ has moderate toughness, however, the weld metal strength overmatch may produce a higher critical CTOD value at brittle fracture initiation. This is due to crack growth path deviation towards the base metal. Plastic deformation preferentially accumulates to a greater extent on the softer base metal side before the critical stress conditions for brittle fracture initiation occur in the CGHAZ. This asymmetrical plastic deformation promotes deviation of ductile crack growth from the crack tip CGHAZ. In this case, the critical CTOD value does not always reflect the CGHAZ toughness itself.

A notch location nearer the weld metal sometimes causes fracture initiation in the weld metal if the fatigue crack tip samples the CGHAZ. Such experimental data do not reflect the real CGHAZ toughness.

The significance of the critical CTOD value obtained in the tests must be determined in the fracture toughness evaluation of the weld CGHAZ. This paper presents a procedure for evaluation of CTOD test results obtained for HAZ‐notched welds that considers the strength mismatch effect.