Polypropylene–microcrystalline cellulose composites with enhanced compatibility and properties

Polypropylene (PP)–microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) composites were prepared containing Poly(propylene-graft-maleic anhydride) (PP-g-MA) and MCC treated with silicone oil, stearic acid or alkyltitanate coupling agent to promote matrix–filler dispersion and compatability. Infrared spectroscopy confirmed surface treatment. MCC content and PP-g-MA increased PP thermal stability and crystallisation temperature (T_c), though reduced crystallinity due to cellulose II crystals. Tensile stress–strain analysis revealed increased modulus with MCC content, PP-g-MA, alkyltitanate and stearic acid. MCC and PP-g-MA reduced creep deformation and increased permanent strain. Storage modulus, loss modulus and glass transition temperature increased with MCC concentration due to effective interaction between PP and MCC.     

Effects of carbon nanotubes and its functionalization on the thermal and flammability properties of polypropylene/wood flour composites

In this article, pristine carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and hydroxylated CNTs (CNT-OH) were employed to enhance the thermal stability and flame retardancy of polypropylene (PP)/wood flour composites (WPC) compatibilzed by maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA). Incorporating 10 wt% PP-g-MA only enhanced the mechanical and thermal properties to some extent, but did not improve the flame retardancy of WPC. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the thermal stability of WPC was further increased with the addition of CNTs or CNT-OH and the increase of their loading level. Cone calorimeter measurements suggested that CNTs and CNT-OH could effectively reduce the peak heat release rate (PHRR) of WPC, and the flame retardancy properties reached the optimum value when both of their loading was 1.0 wt%, for instance, a reduction in PHRR by 16.7% and 25% for CNTs and CNT-OH, respectively. In addition, CNT-OH conferred better flame retardancy on WPC relative to pristine CNTs due to the better interfacial adhesion with wood flour and PP matrix, which was evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations.     

Polyolefin-based nanocomposites: the effect of organosilane on organoclay dispersion

This work dealt with the morphology and properties of polypropylene/organoclay (PP/OMMt) nanocomposites prepared using maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA) or organosilane (OTMS) as a compatibilizing agent. The content of OMMt was 2 wt%, and different concentrations of OTMS were used to obtain OTMS/OMMt mass ratios of 0/1, 1/1, 0.5/1 or 0.25/1. The results of wide-angle X-ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy investigations showed that the OTMS promoted the total exfoliation of OMMt in the PP matrix, while the OMMt yielded a micrometer-scale dispersion when PP-g-MA was used. In general, the OTMS satisfactorily compatibilized the PP/OMMt nanocomposites, increasing the modulus of the PP matrix. When a hybrid compatibilizer of OTMS/PP-g-MA was used, better thermal and mechanical properties were achieved.     

Green composites based on polypropylene matrix and hydrophobized spend coffee ground (SCG) powder

Green composites were prepared with polypropylene matrix and 20 wt.% spent coffee ground (SCG) powder for uses as a wood plastic composite (WPC). The effects of hydrophobic treatment with palmitoyl chloride on SCG powder is compared with conventional surface treatment based on silanization with (3-glycidyloxypropyl) trimethoxysilane and the use of a maleated copolymer compatibilizer (polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride, PP-g-MA) in terms of mechanical properties, morphology, thermal properties and water uptake. Composites were previously mixed in a twin-screw co-rotating extruder and subsequently subjected to injection moulding. The comparative effect of the different surface treatments and or compatibilizers on mechanical performance was studied by flexural, impact tests and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA-torsion); in addition, the stabilizing effect of SCG was revealed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravymetric analysis (TGA). As one of the main drawbacks of wood plastic composites and natural fibre reinforced plastics is the moisture gain, water uptake tests were carried out in order to quantify the effectiveness of the hydrophobization process with palmitoyl chloride. Results show a slight increase in flexural modulus for composites with both untreated and treated/compatibilized SCG powder (20 wt.%). As expected, thermal stability is improved as indicated by an increase of more than 8% in the onset degradation temperature by DSC if compared to unfilled polypropylene. Fracture analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) shows better particle dispersion for PP-SCG composites with hydrophobized SCG with palmitoyl chloride treatment; in addition a remarkable decrease in water uptake is observed for composites with hydrophobized SCG.     

Dispersion,thermal and mechanical properties of polypropylene/magnesium hydroxide nanocomposites compatibilized by SEBS-g-MA

Isotactic polypropylene (PP)/nano-magnesium hydroxide (nano-MH) composites with 10 wt.% maleic anhydride grafted styrene–ethylene-butylene–styrene tri-block copolymer (SEBS-g-MA) as a compatilizer were prepared by melt extrusion compounding and injection molding. The effects of SEBS-g-MA on dispersion of nano-MHs in PP matrix and interfacial adhesion were studied in order to prepare highly filled PP/MH nanocomposites. The results showed that SEBS-g-MA improved both dispersion of nano-MHs and interfacial adhesion in PP/MH nanocomposites with up to 40 wt.% nano-MHs. The elastic moduli of PP/SEBS-g-MA /MH nanocomposites increased marginally and tensile yield strengths were almost invariant with nano-MH loading. Significant impact toughening of these ternary nanocomposites was, however, achieved due to the cavitation of SEBS-g-MA/MH particles and expansion of voids as well as plastic deformation of the PP matrix.     

Study on short ramie fiber/poly(lactic acid) composites compatibilized by maleic anhydride

Short ramie fiber reinforced poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites without and with maleic anhydride (MA) were developed. The influence of PLA-g-MA as a compatibilizer on the properties of the composites was studied. The tensile, flexural and impact strength of the composites have improvements with the addition of PLA-g-MA. The morphology of fracture surface evaluated by SEM indicates that the composites with the addition of PLA-g-MA can get better adhesion between the fiber and the matrix. And the Vicat softening temperature and the degradation temperature of the composites are increased with the addition of PLA-g-MA. However, PLA-g-MA leads the glass transition temperature (T_g) decrease according to the DSC results.     

Kinetic and structural interpretations of post-yield crack resistance behavior of polyamide-6/polyolefin-g-maleic anhydride blends

Binary blends of polyamide-6 (PA-6)/polypropylene-grafted-maleic anhydride (PP-g-MA) and PA-6/low density polyethylene-grafted-maleic anhydride (LDPE-g-MA) were prepared with varied concentration (0–30 wt%) of maleic anhydride-grafted polyolefinic (PP) moiety as the impact modifier. The microstructural attributes and thermal properties of the blends were characterized by WAXD, FTIR, SEM, DSC, and TGA. The WAXD/DSC studies have revealed that the crystallinity of the blends decreased with the increase in the PP modifier whereas the onset of degradation temperature remained nearly unaffected. Comparative assessment of the crack toughness behavior of the blends has been carried out following the essential work of fracture (EWF) approach based on post-yield fracture mechanics (PYFM) concept. The kinetics of crack propagation of the blends has been discussed in the realms of structural and compositional parameters. An enhancement in the toughness (resistance to stable crack propagation) as indicated by a maximum in the non-EWF (βw _p) values have been observed at 10 and 20 wt% followed by a sharp and consistent drop in the composition regime of 10–20 and 20–30 wt% of PP-g-MA and LDPE-g-MA, respectively; conceptually implying possible ductile-to-semiductile transitions in the blend systems. The equivalence of PYFM–EPFM fracture parameters have been discussed following inequality criterion. Fractured surface morphology investigations revealed that the failure mode of the blends undergo a systematic transition from matrix-controlled homogeneous flow/deformation in the PP/polyamide phase to blend composition-dependent changes in the modes and extent of fibrillation via cavitation and shear-banding mechanisms.     

Mechanical properties of wood–fiber reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of a novel compatibilizer with isocyanate functional group

Natural fibers are increasingly being used as reinforcement in commercial thermoplastics due to their low cost, high specific properties and renewable nature. While the maleic anhydride modified polypropylene (MAPP) is most commonly used as compatibilizer to improve interfacial adhesion between hydrophilic wood–fibers and hydrophobic polypropylene, in this study, a novel compatibilizer (m-TMI-g-PP) with isocyanate functional group was synthesized by grafting m-isopropenyl-α,α-dimethylbenzyl-isocyanate (m-TMI) onto isotactic polypropylene (PP) in a twin screw extruder. The effect of filler concentration on the mechanical properties of wood–fiber filled composites, prepared by using m-TMI-g-PP as the compatibilizer, was investigated. The addition of the compatibilizer resulted in greater reinforcement of composites, as indicated by the improvement in mechanical properties. Tensile strength of composites so prepared increased by almost 45%, whereas 85% increase in flexural properties was observed. However the addition of wood–fibers resulted in a decrease in elongation at break and impact strength of the composites.     

挤出成型PP木塑复合材料的力学性能与改性研究

以聚丙烯(PP)为塑料基体,以木粉为填料,并加入添加剂,用挤出成型法制备了PP基木塑复合材料(PP-WPC),研究了增韧剂、相容剂、偶联剂和颜料对WPC力学性能的影响。结果表明:随着增韧剂POE和EPDM加入量的增加,PP-WPC的冲击强度提高,但弯曲强度和弯曲模量有一定程度的降低,其中POE提高冲击强度的效果优于EPDM;适量加入相容剂或偶联剂能提高PP-WPC的弯曲强度和冲击强度,实验条件下相容剂MAPP最佳用量为8%,偶联剂KH570和KH171最佳用量为1%,其中相容剂提高强度的效果显著优于偶联剂;颜料的加入不同程度地降低了PP-WPC的力学强度,其降低程度顺序为:钛白粉>氧化铁黄>氧化铁红>炭黑。     

LDPE–wood composites utilizing degraded LDPE as compatibilizer

The effect of degraded low-density polyethylene (dLDPE) as compatibilizer on the morphology and properties of low-density polyethylene (LDPE)/wood flour (WF) composites was investigated. The formation of functional groups on the degraded polyethylene chains enables the dLDPE to be used as a compatibilizer. The SEM images show smooth surfaces with fewer voids and fibre pullout for the dLDPE modified composites. The carbonyl index of the dLDPEs increased up to 7 weeks degradation, while the molecular weight decreased significantly. In the dLDPE treated composites a nucleating effect of the fibres gave rise to increased LDPE melting and crystallization enthalpies. There was no significant improvement in the thermal stability of the dLDPE treated composites. The presence of dLDPE observably influenced the viscoelastic properties and mechanical properties of the composites. It was found that the higher carbonyl index dLDPEs are more efficient compatibilizers in LDPE/WF composites, despite their significantly reduced molecular weights.     

长支化聚丙烯／木粉复合材料的制备和结构性能分析

采用原位反应复合的方法研究制备了长支化聚丙烯(LCBPP)/木粉(WF)复合材料。FT-IR结果表明,单体季戊四醇三丙烯酸酯(PETA)被接枝到了PP骨架上。多种流变实验测试结果(黏度曲线,储能模量)证实了长支化聚丙烯的存在。复合材料性能测试表明,长支化反应提高了木塑材料的冲击强度和拉伸强度,最大幅度分别达到29.44%和27.75%。其原因在于LCBPP与木粉颗粒的相容性较好,这由SEM照片得到了证实。     

Flexural properties and micromorphologies of wood flour/carbon nanofiber/maleated polypropylene/polypropylene composites

The effects of carbon nanofibers (CNF) on the performance of three- or more phase composites are complicated. CNFs formulated into wood flour (WF)/maleated polypropylene (MAPP)/polypropylene (PP) composites by high shear blending alone improved flexural properties. Addition of an extrusion step after high shear blending enhanced CNF dispersion and improved the composites’ flexural moduli, but in these systems CNF did not contribute to flexural property enhancement. The addition of 1.0 wt% CNF to WF/MAPP/PP by high shear blending followed by extrusion did not affect either the WF dispersion or WF/PP adhesion. The adhesion between WF and PP/MAPP matrix was good (SEM), but CNF adhesion to the PP/MAPP matrix was poor.     

木粉含量对木粉-淀粉/聚乳酸复合材料性能的影响

以杨木粉、玉米淀粉和聚乳酸(PLA)为原料,甘油为相容剂,利用熔融挤出法制备了木粉-淀粉/PLA复合材料。研究了木粉含量对复合材料界面相容性、热性能、力学性能、流变性能以及吸水率的影响。结果表明:随着木粉含量的增加,PLA与木粉之间的界面相容性下降,木粉-淀粉/PLA复合材料的热稳定性下降,储能模量、损耗模量和复数黏度逐渐增加;随着木粉含量的增加,木粉-淀粉/PLA复合材料的拉伸强度和弯曲强度呈现先增大后减小的趋势,当木粉含量为18wt%时,复合材料的拉伸强度和弯曲强度均达到最大值,最大值分别为40.65 MPa和60.91 MPa;随木粉含量的增加,复合材料的断裂伸长率由9.64%减小到5.97%,而吸水率由5.38%增大到13.43%。     

聚磷酸铵/次磷酸铝协效阻燃聚丙烯/木粉复合材料

以聚磷酸铵(APP)和次磷酸铝(AHP)为阻燃剂,马来酸酐接枝聚丙烯(MA-g-PP)为界面相容剂,通过熔融共混制备了聚丙烯(PP)/木粉(WF)复合材料。采用UL-94垂直燃烧、氧指数(LOI)、热重分析(TGA)探究了阻燃PP/WF复合材料的阻燃性和热分解过程。实验表明,当APP与AHP质量比为9∶1时,LOI值为28.3%,垂直燃烧UL-94达到V-0级。TGA和DTG测试表明,APP与AHP复配能降低木纤维的分解温度,使复合材料提前成炭,达到阻燃作用;加入APP与AHP的PP/WF复合材料的成炭率提高了141%,其高温稳定性也得到提高。通过SEM观察到,当m(APP)∶m(AHP)=9∶1时,木塑复合材料可形成致密的炭层,具有更好的隔热、隔氧作用,从而提高了阻燃性。结果表明在聚磷酸铵中加入少量的协效剂次磷酸铝可明显提高PP/WF复合材料的阻燃性。     

Mechanical properties and flammability of sisal/PP composites: Effect of flame retardant type and content

In this research, magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) and zinc borate, as flame retardants, were incorporated into sisal/PP composites. Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene was also used as a compatibilizer. Adding flame retardants into sisal/PP composites reduced burning rate and increased thermal stability of the composites. No synergistic effect was observed when both magnesium hydroxide and zinc borate were incorporated in the sisal/PP composites. In addition, the sisal/PP composites exhibited insignificant difference of shear viscosity at high shear rate indicating that types of flame retardants used in this study had no impact on the processability of the composites. Good distribution of flame retardants and sisal fiber in PP matrix was also observed. All PP composites had lower impact strength than the neat PP. However, the sisal/PP composites with the addition of Mg(OH)₂ and zinc borate exhibited comparable tensile and flexural properties to the sisal/PP composites without adding those flame retardants. Therefore, the addition of Mg(OH)₂ and zinc borate enhanced flame retardancy of sisal/PP composites without sacrificing their mechanical properties.     

纳米蒙脱土对木粉/聚丙烯复合材料发泡性能的影响

采用高压釜间歇式发泡法,结合超临界CO₂微孔发泡技术制备了发泡木粉-纳米蒙脱土(NMMT)/聚丙烯(PP)复合材料。通过对复合材料的结晶行为、流变性能、泡孔形貌及压缩性能进行分析,主要研究了NMMT对其微孔结构及力学性能的改善作用。结果表明:NMMT的引入使木粉/PP复合材料中PP基体的结晶速率加快,结晶度减小,有利于发泡均相体系的形成和泡孔生长;PP分子链的运动受到NMMT片层的抑制作用,导致木粉/PP复合材料的熔体弹性提高,泡孔合并与塌陷的现象减少,发泡材料的平均泡孔直径从30.4 μm降低至20.3 μm,并且泡孔尺寸的均匀性得到明显改善,压缩强度和模量分别提高了187%和223%。      

Impact essential work of fracture of polypropylene/montmorillonite nanocomposites toughened with SEBS-g-MA elastomer

Poly(propylene) (PP)/organo-montmorillonite (Org-MMT) nanocomposites toughened with maleated styrene–ethylene–butylene–styrene (SEBS-g-MA) were prepared via melt compounding. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to evaluate the effects of the Org-MMT and SEBS-g-MA additions on the structure of nanocomposites. XRD traces showed that the characteristic (0 0 1) peak of the nanocomposites shifted to the lower angle region. Multi-layered stacks of clay platelets and independent exfoliated platelets were observed in TEM image. This implied that mixed intercalated and exfoliated structure were developed in the nanocomposites. The impact essential work of fracture (EWF) tests were used to evaluate the impact fracture toughness of the nanocomposites toughened with elastomer. The results showed that the SEBS-g-MA additions were beneficial in enhancing the essential and non-essential work of fracture of the nanocomposites.     

A comparative study on the effects of Coriolus versicolor on properties of HDPE/wood flour/paper sludge composites

In this study, the effects of white-rot fungus (Coriolus versicolor) on the properties of high density polyethylene (HDPE)/wood flour/paper sludge composites were examined. In addition, the effectiveness of using coupling agent on the durability of decayed and undecayed WPCs was investigated. Two different types of sludge materials, namely paper making waste water sludge (PS) and ink-eliminated sludge (IES) were used. The mechanical properties, morphology, and water absorption of fabricated composites were investigated. At a similar wood flour loading, except for modulus of elasticity, the fungi treated composites showed lower mechanical properties (such as modulus of rupture and unnotched Izod impact strength), and higher water absorption compared to untreated composites. According to the results, addition of wood flour decreased the resistance of the composites to moisture and fungal environment. The exposure of the composites to a 4-cycle (2, 24, 48 and 72 h) water immersion caused serious damage to the interfacial adhesion between wood flour and polymer matrix due to contraction and swelling stresses developed during the cyclic exposure. The detrimental effect of fungal treatment on the water uptake of the composites could be explained by the degradation of lignin which made the cellulose content more accessible. Further, it makes chains of cavities that accelerate water absorption. However, the weight losses of all cases of treated composites were low (less than 2.5%), while PS filled composites were more susceptible to white-rot fungi. The addition of coupling agent during the compounding of wood flour and HDPE prevented the colonization and proliferation of fungus on the surface of the composites, and had an advantageous effect on the water uptake and mechanical properties of both treated and untreated composites.     

Effect of flame retardants on flame retardant,mechanical, and thermal properties of sisal fiber/polypropylene composites

A flame retardant efficiency of flame retardants; ammonium polyphosphate (APP), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂), zinc borate (Zb), and combination of APP with Mg(OH)₂ and Zb in sisal fiber/polypropylene (PP) composites was investigated using a horizontal burning test and a vertical burning test. In addition, maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) was used as a compatibilizer to enhance the compatibility in the system; i.e. PP-fiber and PP-flame retardants. Thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of the PP composites were also studied. Adding the flame retardants resulted in improved flame retardancy and thermal stability of the PP composites without deterioration of their mechanical properties. APP and combination of APP with Zb effectively enhanced flame retardancy of the PP composites. No synergistic effect was observed when APP was used in combination with Mg(OH)₂. SEM micrographs of PP composites revealed good distribution of flame retardants in PP matrix and good adhesion between sisal fiber and PP matrix.     

Effect of coupling agent and nanoclay on properties of HDPE,LDPE, PP,PVC blend and Phargamites karka nanocomposite

High density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) were solution blended by using a mixture of xylene and tetrahydrofuran as solvent and polyethylene-co-glycidyl methacrylate (PE-co-GMA) as compatibilizer. The minimum ratio of solvents to obtain a homogenous solution was optimised. Wood polymer composites (WPC) were prepared by using solution blended polymer, wood flour and nanoclay. X-ray diffraction studies of WPC treated with 1 and 3 phr nanoclay showed higher exfoliation compared to WPC treated with 5 phr nanoclay. TEM study also supported the above findings. FTIR studies indicated an interaction between wood, PE-co-GMA and clay. SEM study indicated an increase in miscibility among polymers due to addition of PE-co-GMA as compatibilizer. Thermal stability improved on addition of clay to the WPC. WPC treated with 3 phr clay showed highest mechanical properties. Hardness and water absorption were improved significantly with the addition of nanoclay to wood/polymer composite.