Application of ultrasonic methods to determine elastic anisotropy of polycrystalline copper processed by equal-channel angular pressing

Anisotropy of elastic properties of ultrafine-grained polycrystalline copper after one, two and four passes of equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) is investigated by means of ultrasonic methods. For each material, Young’s and shear moduli in the principal processing directions are evaluated and the symmetry and orientation of the anisotropy are identified. The relation between the determined symmetry and the processing mechanisms is discussed. It is shown that the material after one and two passes of ECAP exhibits a measurable anisotropy, while the material after the fourth pass behaves isotropically. Within the discussion, it is shown that the origin of the observed anisotropy may be attributed to the spatial arrangement of grain boundaries rather than to the crystallographic texture. In the light of this conclusion, the obtained results correspond well with optical and transmission electron microscopy observations of the microstructures of ECAPed materials documented in the literature.     

Fatigue damage generation in ECAPed oxygen free copper

In order to understand the fatigue damage generation of ultra-fine grained copper, rotating bending fatigue tests were carried out. After the 4 and 8 pass of ECAP (equal channel angular pressing) with B_c route, grains with about 300 nm diameter were formed. The damage profile of fatigued surfaces between annealed pure copper and ECAPed one had substantial difference in morphology was observed. To clarify the formation process of surface damage, morphological change in surface caused by cyclic stresses was monitored successively by using optical microscope. It was found that the surface damages for the ECAPed copper propagated along the projected direction of shear plane in ECAP process.     

纯度对ECAP制备超细晶铜疲劳性能的影响

采用应力比R=–1的对称加载疲劳试验,研究了ECAP制备的超细晶高纯铜(HPCu)、低纯铜(LPCu)的疲劳行为,分析了循环应力-应变响应、疲劳寿命和疲劳前后晶粒取向分布,讨论了纯度与超细晶材料疲劳稳定性的关系。结果表明:在任何应力幅下,获得的超细晶低纯铜的寿命都大于ECAP变形前的粗晶铜;在相同应力幅下,循环周次提高1.6~2.0倍。而超细晶高纯铜的疲劳曲线,表现出不同的特性,在高应力幅下,超细晶高纯铜具有较高的疲劳寿命,但在低应力幅下,超细晶高纯铜循环周次下降,疲劳寿命低。在应力控制条件下,随应力幅的降低,超细晶纯铜的循环应力-应变响应从循环软化逐渐过渡为循环硬化。杂质的存在能有效阻止疲劳过程中晶粒的转动和位错的运动,降低其回复软化,减小相邻晶粒间取向差变化,使超细晶低纯铜与超细晶高纯铜相比有较大的循环硬化指数n和循环硬化系数K,具有较好的疲劳稳定性。     

等径弯曲通道变形制备超细晶铜的热稳定性

室温下采用等径弯曲通道变形(Equal Channel Angular Pressing,ECAP)C方式进行了纯铜(99.95%)12道次挤压变形。通过等温和等时退火,研究ECAP变形后铜的退火行为,并研究了等径弯曲通道变形和退火后纯铜的显微硬度和显微结构变化。分析了ECAP应变量、退火时间和退火温度对超细晶铜的再结晶行为、抗软化性能的影响。结果表明:ECAP变形后的超细晶铜在退火过程中,表现出不连续再结晶现象;ECAP降低了铜的热稳定性,变形道次越高再结晶温度越低。退火后稳态晶粒尺寸随变形道次的增加而细化,硬度值随变形道次的增加而增大,回归分析表明,晶粒尺寸与硬度之间的关系符合Hall-Petch公式。     

Using X-ray microtomography to evaluate cavity formation in a superplastic magnesium alloy processed by equal-channel angular pressing

The magnesium AZ31 alloy exhibits excellent superplastic properties after processing by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) and testing in tension at a temperature of 623 K. Experiments show that there is an increase in the elongations to failure with increasing numbers of passes in ECAP. X-ray microtomography was used to obtain detailed information on the morphologies of cavities developed during superplastic flow and the results were analyzed in terms of the different possible cavity growth mechanisms. The results show that superplastic elongations are attained in this alloy because the finer grain structure introduced by ECAP is associated with lower flow stresses in tensile testing at elevated temperatures and this leads to a reduction in the rate of growth of internal cavities.     

ECAP制备超细晶生物医用钛及钛合金的研究进展

钛及钛合金由于质轻、弹性模量低、生物相容性佳和骨整合性优异,已成为应用最广泛的生物医学金属材料之一。然而,较低的塑性、耐腐蚀性能和耐磨损性能限制了其发展和应用。剧烈塑性变形被认为是对金属材料最有效的晶粒细化方法之一,其中,等通道转角挤压（ECAP）是制备块状超细晶（UFG）/纳米晶金属材料的常用技术。通过ECAP变形,可以制备具有优异综合性能的UFG钛及钛合金。本文综述了生物医用UFG钛及钛合金的ECAP制备方式,着重讨论了ECAP变形对钛及钛合金的组织、力学性能、耐腐蚀性能和耐磨损性能的影响,分析了钛及钛合金的ECAP变形机制和晶粒细化机制,提出了通过ECAP变形结合传统塑性加工和变形后热处理来进一步优化钛及钛合金综合性能的想法。     

单晶结构残余应力的X射线衍射分析技术

准确测定单晶材料残余应力是控制和调整单晶构件中残余应力的前提。基于弹性力学对单晶材料弹性模量与对应衍射晶面的关系进行理论分析,建立立方单晶材料的残余应力分析模型,并提出具体试验方法,以DD3单晶叶片为例,进行试验验证。结果表明：不同衍射晶面的弹性模量受独立弹性柔度系数、取向系数影响,DD3单晶叶片表面应力模型计算值与实测值间相对误差在20 MPa范围内。这种X射线衍射残余应力测定方法测定的残余应力值可靠性较高,为工程应用中测定立方单晶残余应力提供了理论依据和试验基础。     

等径弯曲通道变形制备超细晶铜的力学行为

利用显微硬度计和电子拉伸机,研究了等径弯曲通道变形(Equal Channel Angular Pressing-ECAP)前后纯铜的硬度、力学性能,分析了ECAP制备超细晶铜(UFG)的强化机制。结果表明,纯铜在ECAP变形中出现了加工硬化-软化的饱和现象,即流动应力随变形量增加先迅速增大,在8道次达到最大(σb=410MPa),而后趋于饱和。强度可达400～410MPa,伸长率为12%～20%,硬度(HV)为140～146。利用MA模型合理解释了ECAP制备超细晶材料的拉伸力学行为。     

Microstructure and tensile properties of ultrafine grained copper processed by equal-channel angular pressing

1. Introduction There has been an interest in the research of spe- cific microstructure and unique mechanical proper- ties in ultrafine-grained (UFG) materials [1]. Equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) process has been successfully applied to obtain UFG structure in numerous metals and alloys [2-6]. However, there are some deficiencies on copper deformed to large shear strains. Ferrasse et al. [6] argued that intense simple shear promotes dynamic rotation recrystalli- zation during ECAP…     

The formation of PSB-like shear bands in cyclically deformed ultrafine grained copper processed by ECAP

Cyclic deformation was performed on ultrafine grained copper processed by ECAP. Shear bands (SBs) and adjacent microstructures were investigated using electron channeling contrast in scanning electron microscope. The possible formation mechanism of SB was discussed based on the characteristic distribution of defects introduced by ECAP.     

常温下超细晶纯钛的制备及其力学性能

在等径通道角挤压法(ECAP)的基础上,通过对挤压试样的设计,提出一种铜包裹着钛棒的ECAP法,最终成功地制备了1、2、4道次超细晶钛,采用这种方法可以在很小的挤压力下实现UFG-Ti的制备。不但有效抑制了钛棒的碎裂,还避免了挤压杆失稳。通过光学显微镜(OM)、扫描电镜(SEM)、透射电镜(TEM)观察了各道次UFG-Ti的微观组织,并利用显微硬度计研究了其硬度变化。利用万能试验机和SHPB系统在不同应变率下进行了压缩试验。结果表明,常温下ECAP处理后纯钛的晶粒明显细化,力学性能显著提高,在准静态和动态压缩载荷作用下其流动应力(10%应变处)分别提升了71%和86%。最后研究了UFG-Ti的应变率敏感性,发现UFG-Ti的流动应力对应变率具有较低的依赖性。     

Anisotropic mechanical properties of polymorphic hybrid inorganic–organic framework materials with different dimensionalities

Hybrid inorganic–organic framework materials have recently developed into an important new class of solid-state materials. Their mechanical properties are as yet unexplored, although they could be of great utility in view of their enormous structural and chemical diversity. The anisotropic mechanical properties of two new copper phosphonoacetate polymorphs, one a three-dimensional coordination polymer and the other a layered material with inter-layer hydrogen bonding, have been studied by nanoindentation with single crystals. The elastic and plastic anisotropy, the onset of plasticity and the fracture toughness anisotropy have been investigated along the main crystallographic directions. The anisotropy of the mechanical properties can be correlated directly with the underlying crystalline structures. For example, the elastic modulus is largest (up to ～90 GPa) along directions that are dominated by inorganic chains or sheets and smallest (～35 GPa) along directions where the organic ligands provide the primary linkages. This study also highlights the capabilities and limitations of nanoindentation for studying the anisotropic mechanical properties of hybrid framework materials.     

等通道挤压对纯铜组织与性能的影响

等通道挤压作为强烈塑性变形方法的一种,可使材料的晶粒尺寸细化到纳米级.对纯铜试样进行了不同道次的等通道挤压变形,并对其组织和硬度进行了测试.结果表明,纯铜在进行等通道挤压变形时,先形成条带状亚结构,随着挤压道次增加,这些亚结构逐渐细化,亚界面逐渐转化成小角度晶界,进而转化为大角度晶界.经过等通道挤压变形8道次后,纯铜可细化至40～120 nm大小的纳米晶结构.经等通道挤压后纯铜的硬度显著上升,随着等通道挤压道次的增加,硬度增长趋于平缓,6道次后逐渐趋于饱和.     

Effect of uniaxial pressure on ultrasound velocities and elastic moduli in plasma-sprayed ceramics

Microcracks and thin voids in plasma-sprayed ceramics are known to be responsible for elastic anisotropy and for small values of elastic stiffness constants (measured at small stresses), compared with well-sintered materials. The increase of ultrasound velocities with increasing uniaxial pressure up to 300 MPa in three types of plasma-sprayed ceramics was measured in two directions. The corresponding elastic stiffnesses increased from 1.4 to 4.7 times. The experimental results were explained by closing of intrasplat microcracks and intersplat thin voids by uniaxial pressure.     

On the effect of the orientation of sheet rolling direction in shot peen forming

Peen forming is commonly used in the aerospace industry to shape large and thin panels, such as wing skins. This manufacturing process uses shot peening to introduce unbalanced compressive stresses near the surface of the component. These stresses tend to bend the panel and, when optimized, lead to the desired contour. Sheet materials often exhibit both elastic and plastic anisotropy, which can alter the development of curvatures. Since peen forming relies on compressive stresses to upset equilibrium, resulting curvatures may also be affected by initial stresses in the part. In this work, the influence of the rolling direction orientation with respect to the sample was investigated experimentally and numerically for the first time for aluminium alloy 2024-T3 specimens. Although maximum deflections were only slightly dependent on the rolling direction orientation, it was found that radii of curvature varied by as much as 10% with respect to this parameter. Finite element simulations allowed quantification of the individual effects of non-equibiaxial initial stresses and elastic orthotropy. It was found that these factors can significantly influence curvature development. Comparison of experimental and numerical results suggested that plastic anisotropy should also be taken into account in future studies. The tools developed in this study show promises for the accurate prediction of peen forming process for large scale components.     

The influence of bondcoat and topcoat mechanical properties on stress development in thermal barrier coating systems

A finite-element study has been undertaken to investigate the stress development within a TBC system consisting of an EB-PVD YSZ topcoat and a Pt-aluminized diffusion bondcoat. Particular attention has been paid to the role of variables such as the elastic anisotropy within the topcoat, interface roughness, variation in creep strength of the bondcoat and the volumetric strains associated with the formation of the thermally grown oxide (TGO). Bond coat oxidation and thermal loading during cooling give rise to significant tensile stresses within the topcoat and tensile tractions at the TGO interfaces. Bondcoat creep, as distinct from yield and plastic behaviour, was the dominant stress relaxation process, and strong bondcoats (in creep) tended to show higher tensile stress levels. Another important factor determining thermal barrier coating stress levels was the level of elastic anisotropy of the topcoat: an elastic isotropic yttria-stabilized zirconia gave rise to considerably higher stresses than a transversely isotropic topcoat.     

Estimation of plastic anisotropy in Ni-5% Al coatings via spherical indentation

Computational models were performed to simulate spherical indentation on the free edge of a material exhibiting anisotropy in plastic behavior. Anisotropy was correlated with out of plane sub-surface deformation fields that persisted after unloading. It was further shown that some aspects of the fields were sensitive only to this anisotropy, and insensitive to yield strain, hardening behavior, elastic anisotropy, or in-plane residual stresses, suggesting an indentation-based method of property measurement. Results from the simulations were compared with Brinell indents on bonded interface specimens of Ni-5% Al coatings deposited by various spray techniques. The coatings applied via air plasma spray, high velocity oxy-fuel and cold spray were found to have normal to in-plane yield ratios of 1.15, 1.30 and 0.60, respectively. Micromechanical arguments are provided for the differences in anisotropy.     

High-strain-rate response of ultra-fine-grained copper

The high-strain-rate response of ultra-fine-grained (UFG) copper processed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) was characterized by three different dynamic testing methods: reverse Taylor impact, cylindrical compression specimens, and hat-shaped specimens in Hopkinson bar experiments. Upon recovery after impact, the specimens were found to undergo dynamic recrystallization at a calculated temperature of 360 K, indicating that the UFG copper is thermally unstable. Reverse Taylor tests were conducted on as-received oxygen-free high-conductivity copper rod and ECAP specimens with 2 and 8 sequential deformation passes. The dynamic deformation of the samples was modeled using AUTODYN-2D, and a modified Johnson–Cook constitutive equation was found to closely capture the dynamic response. Both the dynamic experiments and analysis from the reverse Taylor tests indicate enhanced strain-rate sensitivity in comparison with conventional polycrystalline copper, in agreement with predictions of reduced activation volume. The shear band thickness, as obtained in forced localization tests, showed a marked decrease, in comparison to conventional polycrystalline copper; this effect is interpreted as due to an accelerated thermal softening and inherent instability exhibited by the UFG structure.     

单晶铜在ECAP过程中的织构转变和强化行为

由于优秀的导电性能,单晶铜已经在各个领域得到了广泛的应用。然而,较低的强度性能严重阻碍了其进一步的发展和使用。所以,使用ECAP技术对单晶铜进行强化,同时研究采用三个不同路径挤压时对材料性能的影响。使用电子背散射衍射和 X 射线衍射来对 6 道次 ECAP 变形过程中单晶铜的织构进行检测。模具的内角为 120°,挤压路径为 A、Bc、C。结果表明： 5 道次挤压后,A 路径,Bc路径和 C 路径的强度和延伸率分别为 405MPa 、30%,395 MPa、26.7%,385 MPa 、27.9%。6 道次挤压后,A 路径的织构为{112}<110>以及较弱的{110}<112>织构;Bc 路径为{001}<110>织构;而 C 路径的织构已经产生了分散。当采用 C 路径进行几道次的挤压后,首先在其极图中出现了双织构并存的情况,随后 A 路径极图中同样出现了双织构。而在 Bc 路径极图中,并没有其他的织构出现。在挤压过程中材料的导电性只有少量的下降,且全部在 98%IACS 以上。可以看出,在合适的应变量下,ECAP 可以使单晶铜强度明显提高而且导电性损失很小。同时,采用不同的挤压路径可以显著影响材料的性能,例如采用A路径挤压出的材料有最高的强度,C路径挤压出的材料有最好的导电性能。     

A new constitutive equation for strain hardening and softening of fcc metals during severe plastic deformation

The stress–strain relationship for strain hardening and softening of high-purity aluminum and copper, which were deformed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) at ambient temperature, was analyzed by combining the Estrin and Mecking (EM) model and an Avrami-type equation with experimental data during severe plastic deformation. The initial strain hardening can be described by the EM model, while the flow stress arrives at the peak stress after it was saturated. However, strain softening similar to plastic deformation at high temperatures is observed after the peak stress. Moreover, the peak strain at the maximum flow stress is ∼4 for copper and ∼2 for aluminum. A new constitutive equation was developed to describe strain softening at high strain levels, which was supported well by tensile, compression and microhardness tests at room temperature and low strain rate. It was observed that dynamic recovery and recrystallization occurs in copper, and recrystallized grains and their growth in aluminum. The results indicate that dynamic recovery and recrystallization was the dominant softening mechanism, which was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy–electron channeling contrast observations and the abnormal relationship between the imposed strain during ECAP and subsequent recrystallization temperature after ECAP.