Influence of data analysis when exploiting DFN model representation in the application of rock mass classification systems

Discrete fracture network (DFN) models have been proved to be effective tools for the characterisation of rock masses by using statistical distributions to generate realistic three-dimensional (3D) representations of a natural fracture network. The quality of DFN modelling relies on the quality of the field data and their interpretation. In this context, advancements in remote data acquisition have now made it possible to acquire high-quality data potentially not accessible by conventional scanline and window mapping. This paper presents a comparison between aggregate and disaggregate approaches to define fracture sets, and their role with respect to the definition of key input parameters required to generate DFN models. The focal point of the discussion is the characterisation of in situ block size distribution (IBSD) using DFN methods. An application of IBSD is the assessment of rock mass quality through rock mass classification systems such as geological strength index (GSI). As DFN models are becoming an almost integral part of many geotechnical and mining engineering problems, the authors present a method whereby realistic representation of 3D fracture networks and block size analysis are used to estimate GSI ratings, with emphasis on the limitations that exist in rock engineering design when assigning a unique GSI value to spatially variable rock masses.     

Interaction of shotcrete with rock and rock bolts—A numerical study

The shotcrete–rock interaction is very complex and is influenced by a number of factors. The influence of the following factors was investigated by a series of numerical analyses: the surface roughness of the opening, the rock strength and Young's modulus, the discontinuities, the extent and properties of the excavated disturbed zone, the mechanical properties of the interface between shotcrete and rock, and the thickness of the shotcrete lining and the rock bolts. The study was carried out as a sensitivity analysis. The results showed that the rock strength and the surface roughness had significant impact on the number of failures at the rock–shotcrete interface and in the shotcrete lining. Furthermore, the behaviour of the lining is sensitive to small amplitudes of the surface roughness. In all the cases investigated, a high interface strength was favourable. The results indicate that if a thick shotcrete lining is dependent on the bond strength. The benefit of using a thicker lining can be doubtful. The analyses showed that for an uneven surface the extent of the EDZ had a minor effect on the behaviour of the shotcrete lining. Furthermore, if rock bolts were installed at the apex of the protrusion instead of at the depression, the number of failures decreased both at the interface and in the lining.     

基于深度学习技术的公路隧道围岩分级方法

通过深度学习技术提取公路隧道掌子面图片中的围岩分级相关信息。训练以掌子面图片和特征标签为数据集的深度卷积神经网络模型,识别围岩的节理、裂隙、破碎程度、粗糙程度、光滑程度、泥夹石和涌水等分布式特征;结合深度学习技术和岩体裂隙图像智能解译方法统计围岩节理组数和间距来描述结构面完整程度;再利用色彩模型确定岩石种类描述出岩石坚硬程度;最后将围岩分级各判别因子转换为BQ值进行分级,获得围岩分级最终结果。结果表明:深度学习模型适用于识别围岩不同形态特征,利用图像识别技术获取的围岩分级参数能够实现对公路隧道围岩等级的综合判定。该处理结果与传统BQ分级结果相吻合,验证了深度学习围岩分级的可行性和准确性。     

A numerical study on differences in using Navier–Stokes and Reynolds equations for modeling the fluid flow and particle transport in single rock fractures with shear

The study on fluid flow and transport processes of rock fractures in most practical applications involves two fundamental issues: the validity of Reynolds equation for fluid flow (as most often assumed) and the effects of shear displacements on the magnitudes and anisotropy of the fluid flow velocity field. The reason for such concerns is that the impact of the surface roughness of rock fractures is still an unresolved challenging issue. The later has been systematically investigated with results showing that shear displacement plays a dominant role on evolutions of fluid velocity fields, for both magnitudes and anisotropy, but the former has not received examinations in details due to the numerical complexities involving solution of the Navier–Stokes (NS) equations and the representations of fracture geometry during shear. The objective of this paper aims to solve this problem through a FEM modeling effort.Applying the COMSOL Multiphysics code (FEM) and assuming a 2D problem, we consider the coupled hydromechanical effect of fracture geometry change due to shear on fluid flow (velocity patterns) and particle transport (streamline/velocity dispersion), using measured topographical data of natural rock fracture surfaces. The fluid flow in the vertical 2D cross-sections of single rock fractures was simulated by solving both the Navier–Stokes and the Reynolds equation, and the particle transport was predicted by the streamline particle tracking method with calculated flow velocity fields (vectors) from the flow simulations, obtaining results such as flow velocity profiles, total flow rates, particle travel time, breakthrough curves and the Péclet number, Pe, respectively.The results obtained using NS and Reynolds equations were compared to illustrate the degree of the validity of the Reynolds equation for general applications in practice since the later is mush more computationally efficient for solving large-scale problems.The flow simulation results show that both the total flow rate and the flow velocity fields in a rough rock fracture predicted by the NS equation were quite different from those predicted by the Reynolds equation. The results show that a roughly 5–10% overestimation on the flow rate is produced when the Reynolds equation is used, and the ideal parabolic velocity profiles defined by the local cubic law, when Reynolds equation is used, is no longer valid, especially when the roughness feature of the fracture surfaces changes with shear. These deviations of flow rate and flow velocity profiles across the fracture aperture have a significant impact on the particle transport behavior and the associated properties, such as the travel time and Péclet number. The deviations increase with increasing flow velocity and become more significant when fracture aperture geometry changes with shear.     

岩石断裂面的各向异性分形和多重分形研究

针对表面结构的分形各向异性和奇异性特征，对岩石断裂表面的多重分形性质进行了研究。提出了一种新的分形测量方法---投影覆盖法，直接测量断裂表面的多重分形维数Ｄ∈［２，３），并引入粗糙性概率度量表面不规则性。研究表明，断裂表面的多重分形谱可提供有关断裂机制的更丰富的信息，不同载荷条件和断裂模式下形成的岩石断裂面具有明显不同的多重分形谱函数特征。     

Experimental study of the hydro-mechanical behavior of rock joints using a parallel-plate model containing contact areas and artificial fractures

In recent years, geological disposal of radioactive wastes is considered to be the most promising option, which requires the understanding of the coupled mechanical, hydraulic and thermal properties of the host rock masses and rock fractures. The hydro-mechanical behavior and properties of rock fractures are usually determined by laboratory experiments on fracture specimens that serve as the basic building block of the constitutive models of fractured rock masses.Laboratory testing of rock fractures involve a number of technical issues that may have significant impacts on the reliability and applicability of the testing results, chief among them are the quantitative estimation of the evolutions of hydraulic transmissivity fields of fractures during shear under different normal constraint conditions, and the sealing techniques when fluid flow during shear is involved. In this study, a new shear-flow testing apparatus with specially designed fluid sealing techniques for rock fractures were developed, under constant normal load (CNL) or constant normal stiffness (CNS) constraint. The topographical data of all fracture specimens were measured before testing to constitute the geometrical models for simulating the change of mechanical aperture distributions during shearing. A number of shear-flow coupling tests were carried out on three kinds of rock fracture specimens to evaluate the influence of morphological properties of rock fractures on their hydro-mechanical behaviour. Some empirical relations were proposed to evaluate the effects of contact area and surface roughness on the behavior of fluid flow through rock fractures.     

分形理论在新-老混凝土粘结强度研究中的应用

介绍了对混凝土断裂面进行分形研究的重要性、分形理论及混凝土断裂面分析中几种主要的分数维测量方法.利用自行研制的分维仪对试验后的老混凝土断裂面进行测试,并应用分形几何这一理论工具对测试结果进行分析,得到了老混凝土断裂面的分数维与新-老混凝土界面粘结强度的关系.结果发现:用分数维来表征老混凝土表面的粗糙度,其预测结果精度较高;在粗糙度较高(分数维D较大)的老混凝土表面上浇注较高强度的新混凝土,获得的新-老混凝土界面粘结强度较高.     

Estimating the relation between surface roughness and mechanical properties of rock joints

Discontinuities in rock masses have an important influence on deformational behaviour of blocky rock systems. For a single rock joint, the roughness of its surface is of paramount importance to its mechanical and hydraulic properties, such as friction angle, shear strength, and dilatancy/aperture. Many methods have been used to characterize the surface roughness of rock joints, such as joint roughness coefficients (JRC), root mean square (RMS) value, structure function (SF) etc. However, most of these methods can only be used in the 2-D models. In this study, we carried out direct shear experiments on rock joints under both constant normal load (CNL) and constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions, and measured the surfaces of rock joints before and after shearing, using a 3-D laser scanning profilometer system. By using a 3-D fractal evaluation method of roughness characterization, the projective covering method (PCM) and a direct shear apparatus of high accuracy, the relation between mechanical properties of rock joints under different boundary conditions and the change of their fractal dimensions in both 2-D and 3-D models have been examined, which gives a new approach to accurately evaluate the evolution of roughness of rock joint surfaces and its influence on the hydro-mechanical behaviours of rock joints.     

混凝土断裂面三维重构

基于激光三角测距原理,提出了一种新的分析混凝土断裂面的测量方法。与传统断裂面分析方法相比,该测量方法能够对混凝土断裂面进行快速三维重构并具有无损、快速和准确的特点,还可以根据重构的断裂面对断裂面进行多种分析。计算了混凝土断裂面的分形维数和粗糙度指数。     

公路隧道围岩的区间数组合分类法

公路隧道围岩的分类方法较多,每一种分类方法的结果都是对真实围岩状况的一种估计,通过一定的算法将这些分类结果进行合成,可以使各分类法取长补短,围岩信息得到充分利用。基于上述思路,并考虑到分类标准和被分类隧道围岩物理力学指标均为区间数的实际情况,提出了一种基于区间数的公路隧道围岩组合分类法。为充分利用区间数携带的信息,定义了一种新的区间数距离计算方法,选择能够兼顾各单一分类法之间功能性和协调性要求的加乘混合函数作为围岩分类函数,计算被分类围岩与分类标准各级别之间的分类函数值,最小值对应的类别即为被分类围岩的类别。针对某工程隧道2个典型段围岩的分类问题,在隧道围岩常用的岩芯质量指标ROD法、《公路隧道设计规范》(JTGD70-2004)BQ值法和弹性波速vp法进行分类的基础上,采用本文方法进行组合分类,结果表明:本文方法物理意义明确,计算过程简捷,分类指标稳定,分类结果与单一分类法相比能够更好地反映实际围岩状况,可供公路隧道勘察、设计、施工时参考。     

岩体裂隙面粗糙度对其渗流特性的影响研究

为了研究岩体裂隙面的粗糙程度与渗流机制间的相互关系,将裂隙沿长度方向均匀分割成若干段,通过设置每一段末端的随机高度,生成两侧对称的粗糙裂隙面。基于格子Boltzmann方法,采用不可压缩流体的D2G9模型,验证了经典的Poiseuille流,计算了不同相对粗糙度岩体裂隙的渗流特性,讨论了裂隙面粗糙度对渗流流态的影响。研究结果表明:裂隙结构壁面对流体的阻碍作用,使得流体在壁面附近的流动产生急剧调整,同时随着裂隙相对粗糙度的增加,在裂隙隙宽急剧变化的部位,局部伴随着旋涡的形成,导致流体内部摩擦阻力作用增大。在单位时间截面渗流流量及每一段平均隙宽相等的条件下,将本数值解与多平行板理论解进行了对比,对于相对粗糙度δ=0.01674的裂隙方案,由于多平行板理论解忽略了粗糙裂隙隙宽变化而引起的局部压降,其裂隙中线处压降产生的最大误差达到15.2%。当相对粗糙度较小时,裂隙中线处的压力与光滑平板流相类似,近似呈线性变化。随着裂隙相对粗糙度增大,压力变化偏离直线方向,且在断面由窄突然变宽的部位,压力变化偏离线性尤为显著。     

Assessment of rock fracture surface roughness using Riemannian statistics of linear profiles

The mechanical behaviour of rock masses is complex, due partly to the presence of discontinuities within them. Of the geometrical parameters of discontinuities, surface roughness, which encapsulates the topographical features of a rock surface, is known to play a significant role. Here, a new parameter for quantitative roughness determination based on the distribution of unit normal vectors to a rock profile is presented.The analysis of unit normal vectors in terms of directional statistics is customarily performed in Euclidean space using a Cartesian co-ordinate system. Here, the analysis is developed using Riemannian geometry, with Mahalanobis distances being proposed for discrimination between different rock profiles. Statistical parameters on the unit circle are extracted using Riemannian geometry, and from that a roughness parameter, D_R1, is obtained. This parameter corresponds to 1D Riemannian dispersion, and as such D_R1 increases as profile roughness increases.D_R1 is applied to the analysis of synthetic profiles and some real rock profiles. Conclusions are drawn that demonstrate the advantages of the new method in terms of investigating the scale effect in roughness determination as well as in comparing different profiles.A preliminary study into the correlation between D_R1 and the shear strength of a fracture, using analytical and numerical investigation of the strength of profiles comprising symmetric triangular asperities sheared at different normal stress levels, shows a clear relation between Riemannian roughness parameter and profile shear strength.     

Quantifying fractured rock hydraulic heterogeneity and groundwater inflow prediction in underground excavations: the heterogeneity index

This paper presents an approach to quantify the degree of heterogeneity of a fracture network starting from the information that is collected for a geomechanical classification of rock masses. Six synthetic experiments have been used to prove the existence of a correspondence between the variability in fracture properties and in the direction and magnitude of flow. Statistical analyses conducted using fracture data collected at a tunnel crossing the north-western Italian Alps have also shown that variability in fracture characteristics is indeed related to the magnitude of inflows. These findings have proved that it is reasonable to estimate the degree of heterogeneity of a fracture network by combining the variance of those fracture characteristics that regulate both flow and the geomechanical behavior of a rock mass. An index comprising a combination of variances of fracture parameters at different scales is presented. Its dependence on scale showed that the heterogeneity of fractured rock increases with scale up to a certain scale and then gradually decreases at large scales.     

A state-of-the-art review of automated extraction of rock mass discontinuity characteristics using three-dimensional surface models

In the last two decades, significant research has been conducted in the field of automated extraction of rock mass discontinuity characteristics from three-dimensional (3D) models. This provides several methodologies for acquiring discontinuity measurements from 3D models, such as point clouds generated using laser scanning or photogrammetry. However, even with numerous automated and semi-automated methods presented in the literature, there is not one single method that can automatically characterize discontinuities accurately in a minimum of time. In this paper, we critically review all the existing methods proposed in the literature for the extraction of discontinuity characteristics such as joint sets and orientations, persistence, joint spacing, roughness and block size using point clouds, digital elevation maps, or meshes. As a result of this review, we identify the strengths and drawbacks of each method used for extracting those characteristics. We found that the approaches based on voxels and region growing are superior in extracting joint planes from 3D point clouds. Normal tensor voting with trace growth algorithm is a robust method for measuring joint trace length from 3D meshes. Spacing is estimated by calculating the perpendicular distance between joint planes. Several independent roughness indices are presented to quantify roughness from 3D surface models, but there is a need to incorporate these indices into automated methodologies. There is a lack of efficient algorithms for direct computation of block size from 3D rock mass surface models.     

透明岩体相似物理模拟试验新方法研究

在传统岩土工程模型试验中,物理模型通常由不透明材料制备而成,变形的直接观测仅限于模型表面,而模型内部变形只能通过局部的、间接的方法进行有限观测,致使全面细致的岩体变形破裂过程及其复杂力学行为研究受到很大局限。借鉴已有一定研究基础的透明土试验的思路与方法,以软岩相似物理模拟为突破口,针对透明相似材料的透明度、强度、相似性和变形量测等几个关键难题,系统研发了透明岩体模型的制作方法、试验加载系统、数字散斑照相量测等关键技术。通过透明岩体基本物理力学实验和相似物理模型试验研究,1提出了透明岩体试样的制备方法,获得了试样透明度较为理想的硅粉、液体石蜡以及正十三烷的配比参数,研制了一种适合模拟软岩物理力学性质与变形破裂特征的透明相似物理试验材料。2通过透明岩体试样内置人工测点和散斑面,分别采用激光切面和白光照射,提出了两种较为有效的透明岩体内部变形的数字照相观测方法。3建立了透明岩体相似物理模拟试验新方法,包括透明岩体组成材料的选择、试样制作的材料配比、制作过程要素控制、模型内测点和散斑面设置、数字照相量测以及配套加载物理试验系统等。     

岩石节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性的数值模拟

 岩石节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性受节理法向条件的影响很大。在岩石节理表面形状三维数值化表达的基础上,首先建立岩石节理剪切过程中力学与渗流的计算模型;接着,应用GIS技术,模拟分析不同法向条件(固定应力、固定刚度)下节理的剪切过程,获得节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性的变化规律。结果表明,法向应力、裂隙张开度、渗透系数均随着剪切位移的增加而逐渐增加,整个剪切过程渗透系数增加了两个量级左右;而剪应力的变化却受法向条件的影响,剪应力在出现峰值后快速下降,而后固定应力条件下剪应力很快趋于一个稳定的值,而固定刚度条件下剪应力却又缓慢上升。     

岩石节理剪切渗流耦合试验及分析

节理岩体内渗流的发生主要是通过断裂节理网络产生,节理面的几何特性和受力特征决定和影响着节理裂隙的渗透性质,从而极大地影响着水下隧道及地下硐室中的渗流。应用自行研制开发的试验设备(岩石节理单一剪切-渗流试验机(SMT-E-4010)),在恒定法向荷载和恒定法向刚度的边界条件下,对不同接触状态下的岩石断裂节理试件分别进行一系列节理的剪切渗流耦合试验,研究剪切过程中力学性质、水力学性质的变化情况;同时,结合立方准则对试验数据进行分析讨论。试验结果表明:节理力学性质,水力开度和透过率在剪切过程中呈现出两阶段的变化性质。     

Permeability evaluation for artificial single rock fracture according to geometric aperture variation using electrical resistivity

A convenient approach was proposed by which to evaluate and monitor the permeability of a rock fracture by verifying the quantitative correlation between the electrical resistivity and permeability at laboratory scale.For this purpose,an electrical resistivity measurement system was applied to the laboratory experiments using artificial cells with the shape of a single rock fracture.Sixty experiments were conducted using rock fractures according to the geometry,aperture sizes,wavelengths,and roughness amplitudes.The overall negative relationship between the normalized electrical resistivity values and the aperture sizes directly linked with the permeability,was well fitted by the power-law function with a large determination coefficient(≈0.86).The effects of wavelength and roughness amplitude of the rock fracture on the electrical resistivity were also analyzed.Results showed that the electrical resistivity was slightly increased with decreasing wavelength and increasing roughness amplitude.An empirical model for evaluating the permeability of a rock fracture was proposed based on the experimental data.In the field,if the electrical resistivity of pore groundwater could be measured in advance,this empirical model could be applied effectively for simple,quick monitoring of the fracture permeability.Although uncertainty may be associated with the permeability estimation due to the limited control parameters considered in this research,this electrical resistivity approach could be helpful to monitor the rock permeability in deep underground facilities such as those used for radioactive waste repositories or forms of energy storage.     

The correlation between RMR and Q systems in parts of Iran

One of the approaches for characterising rock masses with discontinuities due to the presence of engineered designs is to use rock mass classification. Thus far, many classification systems, including RMR, Q, and GSI, have been proposed in the literature. Their parameters are based on site investigations, such as surface/subsurface fracture studies and well coring, as well as laboratory experiments. When sufficient information is not available, the utilisation of several rock mass classification systems is useful to compile a more complete understanding of the composition and characteristics of a rock mass. Thus, many correlations have been drawn to relate different systems, especially between RMR and Q systems. In this study, the best correlation coefficient between RMR and Q systems was determined with the aim of suggesting a new potential correlation for various geotechnical activities in parts of Iran. To accomplish this aim, rock mass parameters for the RMR and Q systems were assessed by considering their values separately for more than 800 stations at 14 different sites and applying statistical procedures to the data. Finally, a new correlation was determined.