A review on the pattern of electricity generation and emission in Indonesia from 1987 to 2009

The level of energy demand plays a fundamental role in today's society. It is a vital input in supporting the physical and social development of a country, as well as national economic growth. Looking at the energy demand scenario in present time, the global energy consumption is likely to grow faster than the population growth across the world. Like any other energy sectors, electricity demand has significantly increased in Indonesia over the past years. Currently, there are six types of power plants in the country. The main sources of electrical energy are generated using the gas turbines, steam turbines, combined cycles, geothermal, diesel engine and hydro-powers. Most of Indonesia's power plants are using fossil fuel for electricity generation. Substantial growth in domestic energy demand, however, would be a major challenge for Indonesia's energy supply sector in the future. Over the past decade, thermal power plants generated about 86.69% of electricity and about 13.31% was generated by renewable energy such as hydro-power and geothermal in 2009. The purpose of this study is to chronicle and show a clear view of 23 years trend of Indonesia's electricity generation industry. Furthermore, the capacity of power generation installed and electricity generation from 1987 to 2009 has been gathered for this study. The total pollutant emissions and emission per unit electricity generation for each type of power plants have been also calculated using emission factors. Also, the pattern of electricity generation and emission has been presented. The results show that the implementation and contribution of combined cycle power plants should be increased together with renewable energy and natural gas which are recommended to reduce greenhouse gas emission.     

A review on electricity generation based on biomass residue in Malaysia

Nowadays, biomass is considered as one of the main sources of energy for both developed and developing countries. Malaysia with a large amount of biomass residues as a source of electricity generation is considered as one of the potential countries in this field. This study aims to analyze the potential of recovering energy from major source of biomass residue in Malaysia. For this purpose, the agricultural crop residues and industrial crop waste are investigated. These will contribute substantially to harness a sustainable resource management system in Malaysia to reduce the major disposal problem of biomass residue. The effective use of the waste can supply the required fuel for future electricity generation.     

Techno-economic assessment of gas pressure-based electricity generation (A case study of Iran)

The pipeline gas pressure can be recovered as electricity by installing a turbo-expander in parallel with throttle valves at pressure reduction stations. This paper aims to provide a techno-economic assessment of electricity generation at a gas pressure reduction station. Owing to the gas flow rate of the station, technical assessment showed two installation capacities of 2853 kw (Case I) and 4169 kw (Case II). As a result, NPV and IRR for Case I is calculated €1,669,623.93 and 28.95%; and for Case II, NPV and IRR is €1,393,871.91 and 23.91% respectively. The analysis indicated case I is more profitable than case II.     

Biomass co-firing options on the emission reduction and electricity generation costs in coal-fired power plants

Co-firing offers a near-term solution for reducing CO₂ emissions from conventional fossil fuel power plants. Viable alternatives to long-term CO₂ reduction technologies such as CO₂ sequestration, oxy-firing and carbon loop combustion are being discussed, but all of them remain in the early to mid stages of development. Co-firing, on the other hand, is a well-proven technology and is in regular use though does not eliminate CO₂ emissions entirely. An incremental gain in CO₂ reduction can be achieved by immediate implementation of biomass co-firing in nearly all coal-fired power plants with minimum modifications and moderate investment, making co-firing a near-term solution for the greenhouse gas emission problem. If a majority of coal-fired boilers operating around the world adopt co-firing systems, the total reduction in CO₂ emissions would be substantial. It is the most efficient means of power generation from biomass, and it thus offers CO₂ avoidance cost lower than that for CO₂ sequestration from existing power plants. The present analysis examines several co-firing options including a novel option external (indirect) firing using combustion or gasification in an existing coal or oil fired plant. Capital and operating costs of such external units are calculated to determine the return on investment. Two of these indirect co-firing options are analyzed along with the option of direct co-firing of biomass in pulverizing mills to compare their operational merits and cost advantages with the gasification option.     

A comprehensive review of renewable energy resources for electricity generation in Australia

Recently, renewable energy resources and their impacts have sparked a heated debate to resolve the Australian energy crisis. There are many projects launched throughout the country to improve network security and reliability. This paper aims to review the current status of different renewable energy resources along with their impacts on society and the environment. Besides, it provides for the first time the statistics of the documents published in the field of renewable energy in Australia. The statistics include information such as the rate of papers published, possible journals for finding relative paper, types of documents published, top authors, and the most prevalent keywords in the field of renewable energy in Australia. It will focus on solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and hydropower technologies and will investigate the social and environmental impacts of these technologies.     

Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia

Emissions in the process utilization produce adverse effects on the environment that influence human health, organism growth, climatic changes and so on. The Kyoto protocol, produced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC) in December 1997, prescribed a legally binding greenhouse gas emission target about 5% below their 1990 level. About 160 countries including Malaysia now adopt this protocol. Electricity generation is one of the main contributors to emissions in the country. In order to calculate the potential emissions produced by this activity, the type of fuel use should be identified. Malaysia hopes to gradually change fuel use from 70% gas, 15% coal, 10% hydro, and 5% petroleum in the year 2000 to 40% gas, 30% hydro, 29% coal, and only 1% petroleum by the year 2020. The changes in fuel type have changed the pattern of emission production. This study attempts to predict the pattern of emissions from 2002 to 2020 due to the changes in fuel use. The calculation is based on emissions for unit electricity generated and the percentages of fuel use for electricity generation. The study found that the electricity generation company has produced huge emissions from their power plants in this country.     

Greenhouse gas emission intensity factors for marginal electricity generation in Canada

In Canada, each province has its own electric utility system, and each system is responsible for meeting the demand of its customer base. Electricity demand in all provinces is highly variable throughout the day, as well as during the year. In order to achieve a good match between electricity demand and generation, a mix of base, intermediate and peaking load power plants is used, which uses different fuel sources. When a renewable energy technology or an energy efficiency measure that results in electricity savings is implemented on a regional, provincial and national scale, the electricity savings reflect in the peak (marginal) electricity generation. Thus, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction due to the reduction in electricity generation corresponds to the fuel used to generate the electricity at the margin. In Canada, the fuel used for marginal electricity generation varies from province to province and from hour to hour. To estimate the reduction in GHG emissions due to reducing electricity generation at the margin, it is necessary to have information on the fuel mix used to generate the marginal electricity for each province on a suitable time scale. With such information, it is possible to estimate a marginal GHG emission intensity factor for each province, which would provide the amount of GHG emissions produced as result of producing 1 kWh of electricity on the margin. However, such information is regarded confidential by most electric utilities and is not made public. In this paper, methodologies are presented to estimate the GHG intensity factors (GHGIFs) for marginal electricity generation for each province of Canada based on the information available in the public domain. The GHGIFs developed for each province are also presented, which are expected to be valid within the next 5‐year horizon. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cost versus emission minimization in thermal electricity generation: A case of so2 emissions reduction from the indian power system

There is a trade-off between cost and emission minimizing objectives for electricity generation because of the measures needed to reduce emissions. For SO₂ emissions reduction these are adjustment within the system which involve deviation from the least-cost generation schedule, changing power mix for future capacity and installation of abatement equipments, e.g. flue gas desulfurization unit. The linear programming modelling framework (INGRID) presented here brings out the nature of this trade-off for SO₂ emissions reduction from the Indian power system for existing capacity and future capacity addition. The adjustment within the existing system can take place through integrated optimal operations of various electricity utilities by substituting generation of more polluting plants by less emitting efficient plants as long as the cost of reduction is lower than that of flue gas desulfurization.     

Life cycle assessment of solar PV based electricity generation systems: A review

Sustainable development requires methods and tools to measure and compare the environmental impacts of human activities for various products viz. goods, services, etc. This paper presents a review of life cycle assessment (LCA) of solar PV based electricity generation systems. Mass and energy flow over the complete production process starting from silica extraction to the final panel assembling has been considered. Life cycle assessment of amorphous, mono-crystalline, poly-crystalline and most advanced and consolidate technologies for the solar panel production has been studied.     

Direct monetary losses to the agricultural sector from coal-fired electricity generation and background: A regional analysis

In this paper, we report the results of research to estimate direct monetary losses to agricultural producers in the Ohio River Basin from airborne residuals. Research results support the following conclusions: monetary losses to agricultural producers in the region are on the order of 10–12% of the present discounted value of clean-air production through the year 2000; losses from utilities alone are on the order of 4–5%; losses are highly concentrated in the ORBES portions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio and primarily related to soybean and corn production; the overwhelming monetary losses are attributable to O₃ concentrations in the region.     

Carbon emission flow: from electricity network to multiple energy systems

Anthropogenic carbon emissions associated with energy consumption are rapidly increasing. Such carbon emissions are further directly related to global climate change. Thus, reducing carbon emissions to mitigate global climate change has been attracting increasing attention. Energy production and energy consumption is linked by energy networks. The network-constrained energy flow leads to a virtual circulation of embedded carbon emissions. This paper introduces the concept and significance of carbon emission flow (CEF), which helps identify the relationship between carbon emissions and energy consumption. Challenges for extending the CEF from an electricity network to multiple energy systems (MES) are analyzed, and CEF models in both the electricity network and MES are summarized. The distribution of CEF and transfer of carbon emissions are studied using realistic case studies based on the energy interconnection system of Southeast Asia and real-world MES in the Jing-Jin-Ji economic circle. Considering the electricity trade in Southeast Asia in 2050, the results show that significant amounts of carbon emissions are transferred among countries. Approximately 19698 ktCO₂ of carbon emissions in Malaysia are attributable to electricity demands of other countries. Conversely, the Philippines and Vietnam would be responsible for additional carbon emissions of 10620 ktCO₂ and 42375 ktCO₂, respectively. With the CEF model, carbon emissions in different energy sectors can be reasonably quantified, thus facilitating the allocation of emission reduction targets in climate change negotiations and low-carbon policymaking.     

A review on hydrogen generation from the hydrolysis of sodium borohydride

Hydrogen is a promising alternative energy source to conventional fuels, including fossil fuel. Thus, several methods were reported for the generation of hydrogen. This review provided a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the publications that focus on the hydrolysis or hydrolytic dehydrogenation of sodium borohydride (NaBH₄). Surveying articles in the literature showed a promising future for this technology, although some challenges lie ahead. The process can be reversible via the regeneration of the reaction by-product (NaBO₂?2H₂O or NaBO₂?4H₂O). The key parameters affecting the hydrolysis reaction of aqueous NaBH₄ were also summarized. The analysis of the publications indicated that hydrogen production techniques need further investigations to be competitive and for renaissance of the current applications. This review also presented concerns behind the commercialization of the generation of hydrogen gas using the hydrolysis of NaBH₄. Several materials have been reported for hydrogen generation, but thus far, no single material can simultaneously meet all the required criteria for mobile applications. Researchers and political decision-makers should manage the progress and open new channels for commercialization purposes. The hydrolysis of NaBH₄ is promising for several applications, including material science, environmental fields, and energy-based applications.     

Economic feasibility of electricity generation from wind farms: A case study

Environmental problems, population growth, and the recent energy crisis have emphasized the need for zero-emission technologies while also ensuring economic feasibility. This work presents the economic advantages of using wind energy for power generation in Iran. A theoretical model is developed, which predicts the output power under various geographical and operating conditions. The wind data (speed and direction) of 2-h interval long-term period from December 2010 to October 2015 was adopted and analyzed to evaluate the levelized costs of electricity (COE) for power generation from wind farms (Arsanjan, Lamerd, and Abadeh) for the year 2018 per time. The influence of two important geographical factors namely winds speed and air humidity on output power also was studied. The results showed that the output power increases continuously when the wind speed varies from 2.0 to 2.6 m/s probably due to the compression of air passing through the wind turbine.     

A critical assessment of the different approaches aimed to secure electricity generation supply

Since the very beginning of the power systems reform process, one of the key questions posed has been whether the market, of its own accord, is able to provide satisfactory security of supply at the power generation level or if some additional regulatory mechanism needs to be introduced, and in the latter case, which is the most suitable approach to tackle the problem. This matter is undoubtedly gaining importance and it has taken a key role in the energy regulators’ agendas.     

A comparative analysis of woody biomass and coal for electricity generation under various CO2 emission reductions and taxes

Mitigating global climate change via CO₂ emission control and taxation is likely to enhance the economic potential of bioenergy production and utilization. This study investigated the cost competitiveness of woody biomass for electricity production in the US under alternative CO₂ emission reductions and taxes. We first simulated changes in the price of coal for electricity production due to CO₂ emission reductions and taxation using a computable general equilibrium model. Then, the costs of electricity generation fueled by energy crops (hybrid poplar), logging residues, and coal were estimated using the capital budgeting method. Our results indicate that logging residues would be competitive with coal if emissions were taxed at about US$25 Mg⁻¹ CO₂, while an emission tax US$100 Mg⁻¹ CO₂ or higher would be needed for hybrid poplar plantations at a yield of 11.21 dry Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (5 dry tons ac⁻¹ yr⁻¹) to compete with coal in electricity production. Reaching the CO₂ emission targets committed under the Kyoto Protocol would only slightly increase the price of fossil fuels, generating little impact on the competitiveness of woody biomass. However, the price of coal used for electricity production would significantly increase if global CO₂ emissions were curtailed by 20% or more. Logging residues would become a competitive fuel source for electricity production if current global CO₂ emissions were cut by 20–30%. Hybrid poplar plantations would not be able to compete with coal until emissions were reduced by 40% or more.     

A framework for allocating greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation to plug-in electric vehicle charging

This paper describes a number of different allocation methods for assigning greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation to charging plug-in electric vehicles. These methods for calculating the carbon intensity of electricity are discussed in terms of merits and drawbacks and are placed into a framework to aid in understanding the relation with other allocation methods. Three independent decisions are used to define these methods (average vs. marginal, aggregate vs. temporally-explicit, and retrospective vs. prospective). This framework is important because the use of different methods can lead to very different carbon intensities and studies or analyses that do not properly identify the methods used can confuse policymakers and stakeholders, especially when compared to other studies using different methods.     

Study on electrical energy and prospective electricity generation from renewable sources in Australia

Nowadays renewable sources are being used as clean sources to generate electricity and to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels. The uses of renewable sources are being increased in electricity generation and contributed to reduce the greenhouse gas emission. The function of any electrical power system is to connect everyone sufficiently, clean electric power anywhere and anytime of the country. This can be achieved through a modern power system by integrating electrical energy from clean renewable sources into the nation's electric grid to enhance reliability, efficiency and security of the power system. The paper on the status of review the driving force of the generation of renewable energy and proposing electrical energy generation from renewable sources to be ensured at least 20% of total energy of Australia. This paper has been studied the existing electricity generation capacity of Australia from renewable and non-renewable sources. Optimal electricity generation from renewable sources has been examined. The environmental impact of electricity generation from renewable sources has been considered. Under this paper the yearly average wind data of past 20 years and above for some meteorological stations of Australia have been used. The prospective electricity generation from wind turbines and solar photovoltaic panels has been proposed in the paper that will increase electrical energy of the power grid of Australia. It was estimated the capital cost of prospective electricity generation farms from wind and solar PV sources.     

Returns to scale in electricity generation: Replicated and revisited

We replicate the findings of two influential studies on returns to scale in the United States electricity generation market. The main results are contrasted using both local-linear nonparametric regression, a technique robust to parametric functional form assumptions, as well as an updated data set. While the quantitative findings across all of the estimators deployed differ somewhat regarding the magnitude of returns to scale, we document a decrease in returns to scale within the electricity generation market from 1955 to 1996.     

External costs from electricity generation of China up to 2030 in energy and abatement scenarios

This paper presents estimated external costs of electricity generation in China under different scenarios of long-term energy and environmental policies. Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) software is used to develop a simple model of electricity demand and to estimate gross electricity generation in China up to 2030 under these scenarios. Because external costs for unit of electricity from fossil fuel will vary in different government regulation periods, airborne pollutant external costs of SO₂, NO_x, PM₁₀, and CO₂ from fired power plants are then estimated based on emission inventories and environmental cost for unit of pollutants, while external costs of non-fossil power generation are evaluated with external cost for unit of electricity. The developed model is run to study the impact of different energy efficiency and environmental abatement policy initiatives that would reduce total energy requirement and also reduce external costs of electricity generation. It is shown that external costs of electricity generation may reduce 24–55% with three energy policies scenarios and may further reduce by 20.9–26.7% with two environmental policies scenarios. The total reduction of external costs may reach 58.2%.     

Evaluation of wind energy potential as a power generation source for electricity production in Binalood,Iran

In this paper, the hourly measured wind speed data for years 2007–2010 at 10 m, 30 m and 40 m height for Binalood region in Iran have been statically analyzed to determine the potential of wind power generation. The study showed that the long-term wind speeds were found to be relatively high. The numerical values of the dimensionless Weibull shape parameter (k) and Weibull scale parameters (c) were also determined. Based on these data, it was found that the numerical values of the shape and scale parameters for Binalood varied over a wide range. The yearly values of k at 40 m elevation range from 2.165 to 2.211 with a mean value of 2.186, while those of c are in the range of 7.683–8.016 with a mean value of 7.834. However, the yearly mean wind speed, mean power density and power density of Binalood at 40 m height are found as 5.923 m/s, 305.514 W/m² and 2676.30 (kWh/m²/year) respectively. The results show that Binalood has available great wind energy potential for grid connection system.