Micromechanisms of borehole instability leading to breakouts in rocks

This paper reviews the different borehole breakout failure micromechanisms observed during a multiyear laboratory research effort at the University of Wisconsin. Vertical borehole drilling experiments were conducted in a variety of granites, limestones, and sandstones under a wide range of pre-existing stress fields. Test samples that developed breakouts during drilling were analyzed under optical and scanning electron microscopes to establish the micromechanics of failure. All rocks tested, except for the quartz-rich sandstones, develop dog-eared breakouts along the minimum horizontal far-field stress springline, even though the grain-scale mechanisms leading to the final appearance may differ considerably. The common denominator is the incipient failure in the form of dilatant microcracking in the zones of the highest compressive stress concentration around the borehole. Dependent on rock type, these microcracks could be tensile or shear openings, extending inter- or intra-granularly. A type of failure not hitherto recognized was discovered in quartz-rich sandstones, which develop tabular slot-shaped breakouts that maintain a constant very narrow width over an extensive length, resulting in a fracture-like appearance. Such breakouts are the result of a largely non-dilatant micromechanism consisting of localized grain debonding and repacking leading to the formation of an apparent reduced-porosity compaction band along the minimum horizontal far-field stress springline. Breakouts are produced by the removal, with the help of the circulating drilling fluid, of loose grains and grain fragments that were debonded in the process of compaction band forming.     

A borehole stability study by newly designed laboratory tests on thick-walled hollow cylinders

At several mineral exploration drilling sites in Australia, weakly consolidated formations mainly consist of sand particles that are poorly bonded by cementing agents such as clay, iron oxide cement or calcite.These formations are being encountered when drilling boreholes to the depth of up to 200 m. To study the behaviour of these materials, thick-walled hollow cylinder(TWHC) and solid cylindrical synthetic specimens were designed and prepared by adding Portland cement and water to sand grains. The effects of different parameters such as water and cement contents, grain size distribution and mixture curing time on the characteristics of the samples were studied to identify the mixture closely resembling the formation at the drilling site. The Hoek triaxial cell was modified to allow the visual monitoring of grain debonding and borehole breakout processes during the laboratory tests. The results showed the significance of real-time visual monitoring in determining the initiation of the borehole breakout. The sizescale effect study on TWHC specimens revealed that with the increasing borehole size, the ductility of the specimen decreases, however, the axial and lateral stiffnesses of the TWHC specimen remain unchanged. Under different confining pressures the lateral strain at the initiation point of borehole breakout is considerably lower in a larger size borehole(20 mm) compared to that in a smaller one(10 mm). Also, it was observed that the level of peak strength increment in TWHC specimens decreases with the increasing confining pressure.     

Experimental observations of the mechanics of borehole failure in porous sandstone

To investigate borehole failure under hydrostatic stress in sandstone of varying porosity, experiments were conducted on three sandstone varieties with 2–5 mm bores. Tennessee, Darley Dale, and Penrith sandstone-types were selected to represent most of the spectrum of sandstone porosity variations (respectively, 0.07, 0.12 and 0.28). Confining pressures ranged up to 500 MPa, and pore fluid volumometry was used to detect bore failure. Failed samples were studied microstructurally using optical and scanning electron microscopy.Each rock type failed with the development of oriented breakout features normally seen to develop around boreholes loaded under non-hydrostatic stress, and in Tennessee sandstone at least, these developed in a consistent orientation with respect to an external reference frame (dip-direction of foreset beds). All of the rock types showed strength and/or elastic anisotropy, thus the formation of oriented breakouts under hydrostatic loading is attributed to the effects of anisotropy.Two modes of breakout development were observed. In Darley Dale and Penrith sandstones, a combination of intergranular shear and extensional fracture produced broad and shallow features with breakout width unaltered during growth. In Tennessee sandstone a purely extensional mode of intragranular fracture was observed, leading to deeper breakout features.The samples tested showed higher failure pressures for smaller bore sizes. When failure pressure is normalized with respect to grain crushing pressure P^*_i, and bore diameter with the product of porosity with grain size, all data lie on a single master curve, with bore failure pressure approximately 0.15 P^*_i in the regime of bore size-independent behaviour.     

Evidence of thermally induced borehole elongation: a case study at Soultz, France

When they occur, borehole breakouts are considered strong markers of principal stress directions at depth. An innovative processing method for automatically identifying breakouts from ultrasonic borehole wall images has been developed. It has been applied to data sets from two deep, sub-vertical wells (GPK1 and GPK2) at the Soultz geothermal site in eastern France. In well GPK1, below 3 km depth, compression breakouts, with a 95°±7° azimuth, increasingly occur with depth. They result from time dependent compression failure at sub-critical stress levels and are indicators of the minimum horizontal principal stress orientation. However, in the uppermost logged section of well GPK2 (1.6–2.9 km depth), continuous borehole elongations share roughly the same azimuth with so called drilling-induced fractures (164°±18° and 175°±17° azimuth, respectively). Both features concomitantly vanish with depth, together with the amplitude of the thermal perturbation induced by drilling. It is proposed that these latter borehole elongations result from a pervasive, cooling-induced, tensile micro-cracking process prior to macroscopic failure localization. They are termed thermal elongations and are indicators of the maximum horizontal principal stress orientation. Had a simple logging caliper tool been used for this work, these thermal elongations might have been confused with classical compression breakouts. A simple criterion for differentiating compression breakouts from thermal elongation is proposed.     

Borehole breakouts and compaction bands in two high-porosity sandstones

We compare the shape and mechanism of failure around vertical boreholes drilled in blocks of two high-porosity sandstones subjected to unequal far-field principal stresses. Tablerock sandstone has a porosity of 28%, and is composed of 55% quartz and 37% weaker feldspar grains. Grain cementation is substantial through microcrystalline quartz. Critical far-field stresses induce failure around boreholes in the form of V-shaped (dog-eared) breakouts, the result of dilatant intra and trans-granular microcracking subparallel to both the maximum horizontal far-field stress and to the borehole wall. On the other hand, boreholes in Mansfield sandstone, which has similar porosity (26%), but contains mainly quartz grains (90%) held together primarily by spot-sutured contacts, fail by developing fracture-like breakouts. We show evidence suggesting that Mansfield sandstone breakouts are preceded by the development of a narrow (several grain diameters) localized compaction zone along the direction of the least horizontal stress, which is where the maximum compressive tangential stress concentration occurs. Failure mechanism here is simply the removal by the circulating drilling fluid of mainly intact grains loosened during the formation of the compaction band. The type of cementation, mineral homogeneity, grain strength, and sphericity appear to be major factors in the formation of compaction bands. Some breakout dimensions in both rocks are correlatable to the far-field principal stresses, and can be potentially used (in conjunction with other information) as indicators of their magnitudes.     

超声波钻孔电视在地应力测量研究中的应用

通过一个300m和一个800m典型钻孔的实际测试结果,揭示超声波钻孔电视在地应力测量研究领域中的几个应用实例,如:岩层裂缝的检测、地应力测试段的选定、岩芯定向,特别是对水压致裂法形成的诱发裂缝和孔壁崩落的测定及分析,在地应力测量研究中将可显示出较强的优势,尤其是最大水平主应力方向的获取,更优于其它方法。并将在两个钻孔中所得结果与常用的定向印模测试结果进行了对比,取得了较为一致的成果。关于超声波钻孔电视对水压致裂法诱发裂缝的测试还未曾见过报道。最后简述了地应力数值大小的推估研究与展望。     

加轴压卸围压条件下北山花岗岩破坏特征

为了研究开挖扰动对花岗岩的破坏机理,对北山花岗岩进行了加轴压卸围压的三轴试验,试验中设置0.1,0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0 MPa/min五种卸围压速率,轴压加载速率是卸载速率的10倍,每一种卸载速率设置5,10,15,20,30 MPa五个围压,并在试验过程中记录声发射事件。分析了声发射事件数随卸载速率的变化规律,使用层次聚类的方法将声发射事件分为张拉破坏和剪切破坏,研究了卸载速率、围压和卸载时间对张剪比(张拉破坏与剪切破坏的比值)的影响,研究表明:(1)随着卸载速率的增加,声发射事件数呈幂函数下降,且围压越高,声发射事件数下降越明显;(2)裂纹的张剪比随着卸载速率的增加而增加,随着围压的增加减小,随着卸载时间增加降低;(3)围压卸载速率增加,岩石声发射b值降低,初始围压升高,对应的b值增加,且卸载速率和围压对张拉b值的影响比对剪切b值影响更明显;(4)基于Maxwell模型分析岩石内局部应力状态,并进一步研究了岩石破坏过程中张剪比变化的力学机理。     

Predicting rock failure around boreholes and drives adjacent to stopes in Indian mines in high stress regions

During stoping in a high rock stress regime, the failure of production drillholes and drives through breakouts poses serious problems in terms of the deployment of men and machinery, and threatens the very continuance of the particular stoping method. In order to continue extraction, it becomes imperative to study the behaviour of the breakouts in the field (as laboratory investigations cannot be directly applied to the field) so that breakout can be predicted well in advance and the necessary corrective measures can be taken as appropriate. For this purpose, the failure of production drillholes and the drives were investigated during sublevel open stoping at the Zawar Group of mines in India.Three distinct stages of the breakout were identified. Analysis of these led to formulation of the empirical models, correlating the depth of the notch of breakout with rise in the field stress. Knowing the field stress, the extent of breakout of these openings can be predicted; alternatively, by using these models, the prevailing ground stress can be estimated by back analysis. The latter, however, is more useful in calibrating numerical models. The breakout of boreholes has also been used to define the limit of application of various stoping methods suitable for steeply dipping orebodies.     

不同应力路径大理岩声发射破坏前兆的试验研究

应力路径不同,岩石变形和破坏过程中伴随的声发射特征也不同,通过不同路径大理岩加、卸荷试验,结合分形维数原理,探讨声发射破坏前兆随应力路径的变化规律。试验结果表明:1岩样破坏处的声发射计数率和破坏前的累计计数率增长率由大变小的应力路径为加轴压卸围压、恒轴压卸围压、单轴、常规三轴路径。2常规三轴路径下岩样临近破坏时,声发射事件计数率存在明显的"低声发射期",围压越大,声发射前兆"低声发射期"越明显;同时累计振铃计数率增长速率降低的拐点出现后很短时间,岩样也会发生破坏。3低围压下恒轴压、卸围压路径岩样破坏时累计振铃计数率的增长速率近似为切线。加轴压、卸围压岩样破坏前一段相近计数率后存在声发射计数率的"平静期",围压增加,"平静期"持续时间增加,岩样破坏产生的计数率越高。4在低围压应力环境下应力比0.8、高围压应力环境下时间比0.4时声发射分维数降低的特征可以作为岩样的破坏前兆分析。     

三轴循环加卸载过程中盐岩声发射演化特征分析

为探究盐岩储气库运行过程中的声发射特征,对取自平顶山岩穴一号钻孔的盐岩进行不同围压作用下的三轴循环加卸载试验及全过程声发射监测试验。试验研究表明:围压施加过程中,声发射信号主要出现在围压施加前期,声发射振铃计数率和能量率的最大值出现在围压压力5~10 MPa的时间区段,且振铃计数率和能量率达到最大以后,声发射信号随着围压的增大逐渐减弱;围压越低,试验加载初期产生的声发射信号越强,整个试验过程中累积振铃计数越多,能量率和能量越高;围压会使试验过程中声发射信号后移,且围压越大,后移现象越明显;围压的增大会使得盐岩加载过程中的平静期缩短和后移,直至平静期的消失;考虑三轴加卸载过程,加载段有明显的声发射信号,卸载段鲜有声发射信号,偏应力峰值前有明显的Kaiser现象,峰值后伴随大量的声发射信号,但Kaiser现象消失。     

Practical application of failure criteria in determining safe mud weight windows in drilling operations简

Wellbore instability is reported frequently as one of the most significant incidents during drilling operations. Analysis of wellbore instability includes estimation of formation mechanical properties and the state of in situ stresses. In this analysis, the only controllable parameter during drilling operation is the mud weight. If the mud weight is larger than anticipated, the mud will invade into the formation, causing tensile failure of the formation. On the other hand, a lower mud weight can result in shear failures of rock, which is known as borehole breakouts. To predict the potential for failures around the wellbore during drilling, one should use a failure criterion to compare the rock strength against induced tangential stresses around the wellbore at a given mud pressure. The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion is one of the commonly accepted criteria for estimation of rock strength at a given state of stress. However, the use of other criteria has been debated in the literature. In this paper, Mohr–Coulomb, Hoek–Brown and Mogi–Coulomb failure criteria were used to estimate the potential rock failure around a wellbore located in an onshore field of Iran. The log based analysis was used to estimate rock mechanical properties of formations and state of stresses. The results indicated that amongst different failure criteria, the Mohr–Coulomb criterion underestimates the highest mud pressure required to avoid breakouts around the wellbore. It also predicts a lower fracture gradient pressure. In addition, it was found that the results obtained from Mogi–Coulomb criterion yield a better comparison with breakouts observed from the caliper logs than that of Hoek–Brown criterion. It was concluded that the Mogi–Coulomb criterion is a better failure criterion as it considers the effect of the intermediate principal stress component in the failure analysis.     

基于声发射试验与线弹性能判据的玲南金矿岩爆研究

 以玲南金矿深部赋存的中粗粒二长花岗岩、蚀变带矿石为研究对象,现场取样并使用GAW–2000型微机控制电液伺服刚性压力试验机进行单轴压缩破坏试验,借助AE21C声发射检测系统对试件的加载破坏全过程进行声发射响应信号记录;通过对试验结果进行分析,揭示玲南矿区深部赋存两种岩石的破坏及声发射响应特征;在室内岩石力学试验与现场调研的基础上,结合线弹性能判据,确定玲南金矿十九中段不同岩石的岩爆倾向性,并通过将判别结果与声发射结果、现场情况进行对比,发现中等岩爆倾向的岩石的声发射能量累积计数是低等岩爆倾向值的15倍以上,因此对于借助室内声发射测试技术的能量累积计数率来快速判断岩石岩爆倾向性具有一定的参考价值,并可在进一步的研究中将其应用到现场预测当中。     

侧压对巷道岩爆声发射及损伤特性影响试验研究

采用双轴刚性伺服控制系统进行花岗岩岩爆模拟试验,采用美国物理声学公司生产的PCI-2型声发射系统同步采集岩爆过程中的声发射数据,研究了不同水平构造应力对巷道岩爆的影响。研究结果表明:随着侧压的升高,花岗岩峰值强度随之增加,并且孔洞内壁初次弹射岩屑的时间提前;轴向载荷达到峰值荷载的80%～88%时,声发射进入平静期。随着侧压的增大,峰值载荷前的声发射平静期延长,振铃计数率突增点出现的时间提前;随着侧压的增大,岩样出现初始损伤的时间相对滞后。花岗岩孔洞内出现碎片弹射时,声发射b值下降到最低值,这一现象可作为发生岩爆的前兆特征。     

基于三轴压缩声发射试验的岩石损伤特征研究

 利用MTS815岩石伺服试验系统和AE21C声发射监测仪,对灰岩进行三轴压缩声发射试验,利用声发射参数,分析三轴压缩条件下岩石的损伤演化特征。试验结果表明：(1) 相同试验条件下,检波器置于三轴室内时的声发射振铃计数和能量的最大值分别比置于室外时高27%和32%,表明,声发射检波器置于三轴室内能够接收到更全面、真实的声发射信号。(2) 围压使岩石压密阶段声发射活动降低,同时声发射振铃计数最大值稍滞后于岩样宏观破坏时间,说明围压提高了岩石的剪切强度和峰后承载能力。(3) 建立基于声发射累计振铃计数的岩石三轴压缩损伤演化模型,岩石的损伤演化过程可划分为初始损伤阶段、损伤稳定发展阶段、损伤加速发展阶段和损伤破坏阶段。初始损伤阶段,声发射参数较小;损伤稳定发展阶段,声发射活动明显活跃,振铃计数和能量逐渐增加;损伤加速发展阶段,声发射活动异常活跃,宏观破坏后不久声发射振铃计数和能量达到峰值;损伤破坏阶段,岩石仍具有相当的承载能力,在破坏过程中仍有声发射活动出现。     

Rock salt dilatancy boundary from combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests

This paper presents an experimental investigation of rock salt dilatancy boundary based on combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests carried out on the rock salt samples from the Asse Salt Mine, Germany. The experimental results were evaluated to determine the dilatancy boundary under specified stress, stress loading rate and pore pressure. Pore volume changes caused by deviatoric stresses were measured during triaxial compression tests. The dilatancy boundary was then determined from the maximum compression on a stress–strain curve which separates the compression and dilatancy regions. Variations in acoustic emissions that occur during microcrack development under triaxial compression were recorded with ten sensors mounted on the outer surface of the cylindrical samples. A spontaneous increase observed in the cumulative number of acoustic events is consistent with the dilatancy boundary determined from the minimum pore volume. It is confirmed that the dilatancy boundary depends on both stress loading rate and pore pressure. The dilatancy boundary slightly decreases with increasing the loading rate, but increases with increasing the minor normal stress. High pore pressures accelerate the dilatancy. A Biot coefficient of 0.25 for Asse rock salt was determined from the dilatancy boundary. An analysis of two-dimensional (2D) fractal dimensions determined for several samples shows that the samples with smaller dimensions have slightly higher dilatancy boundaries. The dilatancy boundary values of Asse rock salt are lower than those reported for crystalline rocks, although both rock types show similar dilatancy behaviour.     

膏岩三轴压缩声发射特征及损伤演化研究

利用MTS 815岩石力学测试系统对膏岩进行不同围压下的三轴压缩试验,配合AE系统进行全过程声发射监测,展开了膏岩变形破坏过程的力学特性及声发射特征进行研究,并进一步探讨膏岩变形破坏过程损伤演化规律。试验结果表明:(1)膏岩是一种致密低渗岩石,气体孔隙度在1.30%~3.50%之间;(2)三轴加载条件下,膏岩的力学性质与声发射参数对围压的响应效果强烈,50 MPa围压较5 MPa围压下膏岩强度提高110.67%。高围压下声发射信号表现出明显的“滞后”效应,声发射集中分布区不断向后推移;(3)膏岩的临界围压为20 MPa。低围压下膏岩呈脆性破坏,破坏后形成宏观剪切面;临界围压下呈塑性破坏,破坏后形成共轭Y型剪切;高围压下呈延性破坏,破坏形态为鼓胀破坏;(4)膏岩损伤演化过程可分为初始损伤期、损伤快速发展阶期与损伤平稳期,能够与膏岩变形破坏阶段对应;损伤快速发展期为膏岩内部裂隙发展、贯通的主要阶段。     

混凝土材料声发射过程分形特征及其在断裂分析中的应用

为了寻求混凝土材料声发射过程与断裂演化之间的关系,从实验入手,首先给出了声发射过程关联分维函数的概念,并通过实验,证明了声发射过程分形特征的存在。然后,通过混凝土试块的三点弯曲实验,分析了材料断裂过程中声发射关联数的变化规律。进而确定了混凝土试块在临界断裂时的分形特征识别模式。研究结果表明,混凝土材料的声发射过程不仅具有明显的分形特征,而且在临界状态下,知声发射分形特征参数都表现出一定的异常“模式”,这种识别模式可以作为材料出现临界断裂的识别特征。     

不等侧压下煤岩力学变形特性及声发射时空特征

通过煤岩的无侧限压缩试验测得其力学参数后,采用颗粒流软件和编制的Fish程序获得煤岩细观力学参数,而后进行双向不等侧压煤岩试验,分析研究煤岩变形、声发射和损伤特征,获得以下结论:随着侧压比增加,煤岩刚度角略增大,脆度角增大,强化角保持一定值,软化角先增大后减小;侧压比对煤岩的线性体缩阶段没有影响,对线性扩容阶段影响明显,对非线性扩容阶段影响显著。在非线性扩容阶段,低侧压比仍保持线性扩容,而高侧压比煤岩则急剧扩容失稳破坏;声发射最大强度与峰值应力并不对应,具有一定的滞后性,侧压比对声发射的滞后效应基本没有影响,声发射最大强度对应应力与峰值应力之比值大致在0.92左右;侧压比小时煤岩沿着单一剪切面发生剪切破坏,侧压比大时煤岩呈现X型共轭剪切破坏,且随着侧压比的增加,煤岩破坏的主控破裂面宽度加大,并逐渐形成破碎带,破碎带内煤岩呈粉碎性破坏状态。     

三轴多级荷载下盐岩声波声发射特征与损伤演化规律研究

 采用岩石声波、声发射一体化监测装置,系统地研究三轴多级循环荷载作用下盐岩超声波波速与声发射变化特征。结果表明：(1) 岩石的超声波波速和声发射活动与应力状态呈现出良好的一致性。加载阶段,超声波波速上升,声发射活跃,卸载阶段,超声波波速下降,声发射平静,应力级数越高,这一特征越显著。(2) 盐岩的声波、声发射特征与试验围压应力密切相关。围压水平越低,应力循环试验中岩石波速变化率越大,声发射事件数量越多;围压水平越高,岩石超声波波速变化率越小,声发射事件数量越少。五级应力荷载试验中,围压条件为5,10,15,20 MPa时盐岩的声发射事件数量分别为1 026,703,361和206个,显示了“围压致密效应”。(3) 分别应用卸载模量、裂隙密度和Felicity比表征盐岩的损伤演化。结论认为：盐岩的裂隙密度和Felicity比变化与岩体承载破坏特征较为一致,可以较好地反映盐岩的损伤破裂过程,而利用卸载模量表征盐岩损伤误差较大,这是由于盐岩特殊的黏塑性变形特征造成的。     

Effect of grout pressure and grout flow on soil physical and mechanical properties in jet grouting operations

Jet grouting is a method for improving soil characteristics. In this method, grouting of cement slurry with high pressure and velocity causes damage to soil structure. Excavated grains of soil are then removed from the borehole and are replaced with cement slurry. The grains that remain around the borehole mix with cement slurry and produce an improved soil mass of soil. This mass is called “soilcrete”. Soilcrete has special characteristics such as high strength, low deformability and very low permeability. The jet grouting process and its results are affected by various parameters of the soil material and jet grouting system. This paper discusses the effects of jet grouting process on the soil properties before and after the operations, and the effects of grout pressure and grout flow on soilcrete's uniaxial compression strength (UCS). For these purposes, five types of the laboratory tests have been done on the jet grouted soil: uniaxial compression, triaxial compression, direct shear, Brazilian indirect tension, and Schmidt hammer tests. According to the numerical results obtained from experiments, by increasing the grout pressure and flow, the UCS (MPa) of soil increases logarithmically. In addition, jet grouting dramatically increases properties such as cohesion and friction angle.