A comparative study of fatty acid profiles in ruminant and non‐ruminant milk

This is a comprehensive study of fatty acid (FA) profiles in milk from bovine, caprine, ovine, asine, and equine species. Milks from these species are universally common as constituents in a variety of different food and dairy products. We have obtained structural information on FAs, and discussed their correlation to health effects. The extracted fat from all species were derivatized to FA methyl esters for analysis by GC‐MS. Large differences in the lipid content and FA composition between ruminants and non‐ruminants were observed. Ovine milk showed the highest lipid content of all the animals tested, both ruminants and non‐ruminants. Among the ruminants, bovine milk was richer in saturated FAs (69.7%) than ovine‐ and caprine milk (57.5 and 59.9%, respectively). Ovine milk contained the highest amounts of monounsaturated FAs (39.1%) and also odd‐ and branched‐chain FAs (5.5%). Milk from the monogastric animals, mares and donkeys, were highest in polyunsaturated FAs with a content of 19.3 and 14.2%, respectively. The assumed health negative trans FAs were analyzed to be highest in the ruminant milk (0.7–1.0%). Milk from these species contained also the highest amount of the health beneficial CLA (0.4–0.7%). Practical applications: This is a comprehensive study of milk from five species analyzed under identical conditions. The different fatty acids and their derivatives are increasingly important components because of the contradictory reports on positive and negative effects on human health. New information on the composition of milk from different species is of great importance. The results may give valuable information to producers and nutritional advisors on the consumption of milk and milk products.     

Dietary modifications of animal fats: status and future perspectives

The purpose of modifying animal fats is to produce high quality products, which meet the dietary recommendations for a reduced intake of fat in the human diet, notably that of certain saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, and an increased intake of mono- (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in order to minimize the risk for obesity, cancer, cardiovascular, and other life-style diseases. The body fat of farm animals is partly synthesized from dietary carbohydrates, partly from dietary fatty acids. In monogastric animals, preruminants and poultry PUFAs are readily absorbed and deposited in the edible parts of the body and incorporated into egg yolk lipids. In ruminants, however, PUFAs are hydrogenated to mainly saturated fatty acids by the rumen microorganisms with some formation of MUFAs, trans-, odd-, branched chain, and conjugated fatty acids. The latter fatty acids are absorbed, deposited in adipose and muscle tissue and incorporated into milk lipids, unless dietary PUFAs are protected against hydrogenation. Thus, it is relatively easy to change the fatty acid composition of pork, poultry meat, lamb, and veal, whereas beef and milk can only be enriched significantly with PUFAs by manipulation. Products enriched with PUFAs are, however, prone to oxidation, and enrichment with antioxidants, notably with dietary vitamin E, is necessary in order to prevent the risk of oxidative damage.     

Do ruminant trans fatty acids impact coronary heart disease risk?

Unlike TFAs produced industrially in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (primarily elaidic acid, 18:1, trans‐9), evidence suggests that trans fatty acids from ruminant food sources (e. g. 18:1, trans‐11; i. e. trans‐vaccenic acid and 18:2, cis‐9, trans‐11; i. e. rumenic acid) do not increase the risk of coronary heart disease. The amount of trans fatty acids in ruminant milk fat varies from 1% to 6% by weight depending on the composition of the ruminants diet. In the U.S., milk fat trans fat levels averages 3.56 wt% (range of 3.20–4.47 wt%). In general, ruminant trans fat accounts for about 20% of the total trans fatty acids intake in the U.S. and consists of approximately 86% from milk fat and 12% from ruminant meat sources.     

Fettsäurenaufnahme des Menschen und Möglichkeiten der Beeinflussung durch die Tierernährung

Fatty acid intake of men and possibilities to influence the intake by animal nutrition. About 70% of total fat intake (≈ 100 g per person per day) are from fat of animal origin in Germany. Animal nutrition may influence fat content and fatty acid pattern in animal products. This paper summarizes the influence of feeding on fatty acid pattern of meat (pork, beef, poultry, rabbit, fish), milk and eggs. Fatty acid intake is demonstrated under consideration of fat intake of men and variation of fatty acid pattern of various fats of animal origin. Daily fat intake of men amounted to 43 g saturated, 37 g monoen and 13 g polyen fatty acids. It may vary between 38 and 46 g saturated, 33 and 45 g monoen and 11 and 17 g polyen fatty acids if variation of fatty acid pattern of animal fats is considered. By combination of lower fat intake and changed fatty acid pattern of animal products fatty acid intake may be changed to more monoen and polyen fatty acids.     

Content and distribution oftrans-18:1 acids in ruminant milk and meat fats. Their importance in european diets and their effect on human milk

Thetrans-18:1 acid content and distribution in fats from ewe and goat milk, beef meat and tallow were determined by a combination of capillary gas-liquid chromatography and argentation thin-layer chromatography of fatty acid isopropyl esters. Thetrans isomers account for 4.5 ± 1.1% of total fatty acids in ewe milk fat (seven samples) and 2.7±0.9% in goat milk fat (eight samples). In both species, as in cow, the main isomer is vaccenic (trans-11 18:1) acid. The distribution profile oftrans-18:1 acids is similar among the three species. The contribution of ewe and goat milk fat to the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids was estimated for people from southern countries of the European Economic Community (EEC): France, Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. It is practically negligible for most of these countries, but in Greece, ewe and goat milk fat contributeca. 45% of the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids from all dairy products (0.63 g/person/day for a total of 1.34 g/person/day). Thetrans-18:1 acid contents of beef meat fat (ten retail cuts, lean part) and tallow (two samples) are 2.0 ± 0.9% and 4.6%, respectively, of total fatty acids (animals slaughtered in winter). Here too, the main isomer is vaccenic acid. Othertrans isomers have a distribution pattern similar to that of milk fat. Beef meat fat contributes less than one-tenth of milk fat to thetrans-18:1 acid consumed. The daily per capita intake oftrans-18:1 acids from ruminant fats is 1.3–1.8 g for people from most countries of the EEC, Spain and Portugal being exceptions (ca. 0.8 g/person/day). In France, the respective contributions of ruminant fats and margarines to the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids are 1.7 and 1.1 g/person/day (60 and 40% of total, respectively). These proportions, based on consumption data, were confirmed by the analysis of fat from milk of French women (ten subjects). The mean content oftrans-18:1 acids in human milk is 2.0 ± 0.6%, with vaccenic acid being the major isomer. Based on the relative levels of thetrans-16 18:1 isomer, we could confirm that milk fat is responsible for the major part of the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids by French people. The daily individual intake oftrans-18:1 isomers from both ruminant fats and margarines for the twelve EEC countries varies from 1.5 g in Spain to 5.8 g in Denmark, showing a well-marked gradient from the southwest to the northeast of the EEC.     

Fats in human nutrition

Summary Dietary fats represent the most compact chemical energy available to man. They contain twice the caloric value of an equivalent weight of sugar. However dietary fats should not be thought of solely as providers of unwanted calories as fats are as vital to cell structure and biological function as protein. If an individual consumes food items of high fat content, an adequate protein and vitamin intake should be assured in order to provide the lipotropic factors necessary for normal fat metabolism. It may be more judicious to control the total caloric intake under such circumstances rather than to resort to periods of semi-starvation or to drastically decrease the dietary fat intake which could result in an increase in hunger pangs and an actual increase in total caloric intake. If the excess calories furnished by carbohydrates are converted to fatin vivo, the problem of obesity could not be solved under conditions of increased total caloric intake. The problem could be solved by a curtailed intake of a diet which includes meat, milk, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and sufficient cereals and bread to provide for an adequate protein, vitamin, and caloric intake. Dietary fats provide the essential linoleic acid which seems to have both a structural and functional role in animal tissue. Although the optimum total intake of linoleic acid by man has not been established, it is evident that the level of intake in the American dietary pattern could be increased. However the indiscriminate substitution of soft for hard fats seems undesirable as an excess consumption of highly unsaturated fatty acids may change the functional value of the triglycerides in the depot fats and may put an undue stress on the antioxidant supply availablein vivo.     

Branched Chain Fatty Acid Content of United States Retail Cow’s Milk and Implications for Dietary Intake

Branched chain fatty acids (BCFA) have recently been shown to be a major component of the normal human newborn gastrointestinal tract and have long been known to be a component of human milk. Ruminant food products are major sources of fat in the American diet, but there are no studies of milkfat BCFA content in retail milk. We report here the profile and concentrations of BCFA in a representative sampling of retail milk in the 48 contiguous United States (US), and their estimated intake in the American diet. Conventionally produced whole fluid milk samples were obtained from 56 processing plants across the contiguous 48 states. Retail milk samples contain exclusively iso- and anteiso-BCFA with 14–18 carbons. BCFA were 2.05 ± 0.14%, w/w of milkfat fatty acids (mean ± SD), and anteiso-BCFA comprised more than half this total. Based on these data and USDA food availability data, the average per capita BCFA intake of Americans is estimated to be about 220 mg/d from dairy; if current dietary recommendations were followed, BCFA intake would be about 400 mg/d. Adding intake from beef consumption, these estimates rise to approximately 400 and 575 mg/d, respectively. These results indicate that BCFA intake is a substantial fraction of daily fat intake, in amounts exceeding those of many bioactive fatty acids.     

The twisted tale of saturated fat

Recent research results mandate a careful re‐evaluation of the widespread belief that dietary saturated fat is harmful. Specifically, multiple recent reports find no association between dietary saturated fat intakes and cardiovascular disease (CVD). There is, however, a consistent pattern of increased risk for both CVD and type‐2 diabetes associated with increased levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in circulating lipids. This raises the important question as to what contributes to increased levels of saturated fat in the blood? Whereas dietary intake of saturated fats and serum levels of SFA show virtually no correlation, an increased intake of carbohydrate is associated with higher levels of circulating SFA. This leads to the paradoxical conclusion that dietary saturated fat is not the problem; rather it's the over‐consumption of carbohydrate relative to the individual's ability to metabolize glucose without resorting to de novo lipogenesis. From this perspective, insulin resistant states like metabolic syndrome and type‐2 diabetes can be viewed as carbohydrate intolerance, in which a high carbohydrate intake translates to increased serum SFA and therefore increased risk.     

Trans-Fettsäuren in Lebensmitteln

Trans Fatty Acids in Foods The fatty acid compositions of the fat in 196 german food samples were analyzed with emphasis on trans components by gas liquid chromatograghy. The range of trans fatty acids (weight percent of methyl esters) in several foods was: margarines 0.6 - 23.5%, shortenings 0.1 - 31.8%, french fried potatoes 508 - 32.8%, cakes and cookies 0 - 15.5%, candies and frostings 0.2 - 15.7%, Crisps and other snacks 0.1 - 20.2%, animal and dairy fats from ruminants. 1.5 - 10.6%, other meat products animals and sausages less than 1%. Teh composition of trans fatty acids differed between hydrogenated fats and ruminant fats. Food processing (except hydrogenation) did not substantially alter the fatty acid composition. The daily intake of trans fatty acids in Germany was estimated by the National Consumption Assay. women consumed 3.4 g/day and men 4.1 g/day. Hydrogenated fats and ruminant fats contributed to the consumption nearly equally. Trans fatty acids influence the plasma lipoprotein levels similarly to saturated fatty acids. The trans fatty acids appear mostly as monounsaturated fatty acids in food composition tables. It seems necessary to distinguish between cis and trans isomers.     

Saturated Fat and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors,Coronary Heart Disease,Stroke, and Diabetes: a Fresh Look at the Evidence

Dietary and policy recommendations frequently focus on reducing saturated fatty acid consumption for improving cardiometabolic health, based largely on ecologic and animal studies. Recent advances in nutritional science now allow assessment of critical questions about health effects of saturated fatty acids (SFA). We reviewed the evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of lipid and non-lipid risk factors, prospective cohort studies of disease endpoints, and RCTs of disease endpoints for cardiometabolic effects of SFA consumption in humans, including whether effects vary depending on specific SFA chain-length; on the replacement nutrient; or on disease outcomes evaluated. Compared with carbohydrate, the TC:HDL-C ratio is nonsignificantly affected by consumption of myristic or palmitic acid, is nonsignificantly decreased by stearic acid, and is significantly decreased by lauric acid. However, insufficient evidence exists for different chain-length-specific effects on other risk pathways or, more importantly, disease endpoints. Based on consistent evidence from human studies, replacing SFA with polyunsaturated fat modestly lowers coronary heart disease risk, with ~10% risk reduction for a 5% energy substitution; whereas replacing SFA with carbohydrate has no benefit and replacing SFA with monounsaturated fat has uncertain effects. Evidence for the effects of SFA consumption on vascular function, insulin resistance, diabetes, and stroke is mixed, with many studies showing no clear effects, highlighting a need for further investigation of these endpoints. Public health emphasis on reducing SFA consumption without considering the replacement nutrient or, more importantly, the many other food-based risk factors for cardiometabolic disease is unlikely to produce substantial intended benefits.     

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers: formation,analysis, amounts in foods,and dietary intake

The analysis, content, and daily intake of conjugated linoleic acid isomers (CLA) are presented in the following review. Modern analytical techniques such as capillary gas chromatography (GC), silverion high performance liquid chromatography (Ag⁺-HPLC) combined with different detection methods (flame ionisation, mass spectroscopic, ultra violet) are mandatory for the unequivocal determination of geometric and positional CLA isomers. An overview is given on the CLA contents in 139 German foods, e. g. milk/dairy products, meat/meat products, edible oils, margarines, fish, and deep fried products. The dietary intake for men and women is estimated using consumption data.     

trans Fatty Acids in Colostrum,Mature Milk and Diet of Lactating Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to investigate the trans fatty acids (TFA) content and distribution in colostrum, mature milk, and diet of adolescent mothers, after TFA declaration in food labels became mandatory in Brazil. Participants were healthy adolescents (n 54, 15–19 years, 1–90 days postpartum) practicing exclusive breastfeeding. Milk samples were collected 3 days after delivery (colostrum) and in the third month postpartum (mature milk) by hand expression. The fatty acid composition of the milk samples was determined by gas chromatography. TFA intake corresponded to 1.23 % of total energy value. Total 18:2 TFA accounted for less than 0.5 % of the energy intake. The amount of total 18:1 TFA (mean ± SEM) was 1.9 % ± 0.14 in colostrum and 1.5 % ± 0.2 in mature milk. The total content of n‐3 PUFA was inversely correlated with the total content of 18:1 TFA in colostrum. Both in colostrum and in mature milk, vaccenic acid (11t‐18:1) was found to be the most abundant 18:1 trans isomer, followed by elaidic acid (9t‐18:1), whereas rumenic acid (9c,11t‐18:2 CLA) was the predominant 18:2 trans isomer. In conclusion, the levels of TFA of industrial sources found in the mother's diet and breast milk (colostrum and mature milk) showed a decrease in relation to those observed in studies conducted prior to the TFA labeling resolution in Brazil. However, the current low intake levels of n‐3 LCPUFA and DHA content in the milk of lactating adolescents may be insufficient for supporting adequate neurological development of the infants.     

Fatty acid profile of high consumption foods by school population of the region Metropolitan of Chile, including trans fatty acid content

The Chilean school population has shown remarkable changes in their eating habits, incorporating high fat content foods to their diet, which could explain the current high obesity rates. A great proportion of these foods uses industrial fats whit high content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and potentially contains trans fatty acids (TFA) as a result of partial oil hydrogenation or as a natural form in ruminant animals fat. The purpose of this investigation was to determine fatty acid profile, including trans fatty acids, from food consumed by the Metropolitan Region school population. A food consumption survey was applied to 203 Metropolitan Region of Chile school-children, which consisted of questions about food consumption frequency and consumer preferences. Based on the results, ten types of food products were selected. Fat content, fatty acids profile, including trans fatty acid, were determinate by GLC according to the UNE 5509 Norm. Each analysis was carried out in duplicate and three samplings were performed. It was found that a great percentage of the analyzed foods showed low TFA content (<1%). However, some of them presented remarkable saturated fatty acids content, generating a PUFA/SFA ratio with poor fat nutritional quality. The low TFA concentration found in the food may be explained by a decrease in the use of hydrogenated fats, following PAHO/WHO recommendation, which are being applied in Chile.     

Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of rhea (Rhea americana) meat

The purpose of this work was to determine the proximate composition and fatty acid profiles of the Gastrocnemius pars interna intramuscular fat (IMF) of rhea (Rhea americana) thighs. The birds were bred in captivity, fed with balanced feed (Nutriavestruz Crescimento - Purina) and kept in a pen with grass ad lib. The birds of both sexes used in the research weighed 23 kg on average and were aged about twelve (12) months old. They were subjected to hydric diet (12 h) before slaughtering by electric shock. The rhea meat showed an average moisture, protein, ash and total lipid contents of 74.1%, 22.8%, 1.5% and 1.6%, respectively. It was noticed the predominance of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in intramuscular fat (IMF), 42.3% and a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 29.7%. The fatty acids found in higher proportion in rhea IMF were: 18:2n-6 (24.33%), 18: ln-9 (19.25%), 16:0 (13.70%), 22: ln9 (11.40%), 18:0 (10.66%), 15: ln-10 (8.62%), 24: ln-9 (2.90%) and 20:4n-6 (1.72%). The PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 ratios were 1.06 and 31.30, respectively. The consumption of rhea meat is a healthy alternative to red meat as it points to a lower susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases caused by the high consumption of fat comparatively to the consumption of meat from most domesticated animals.     

Economic advantages of using vegetable protein products in Scandinavia

Sweden is a small country with different habits and traditions compared to the rest of Europe and even to the rest of Scandinavia. Numerous special conditions important for the economics of using vegetable protein are reviewed. Sweden is outside the EEC and has a protectionist agriculture policy. The food standards are rather special. Since 1973 government subsidies have been made for some important base foods like milk, cheese, meat and processed meat products. This has meant an increasing per capita consumption for these products as well as increasing problems of selling protein for substitution of meat or milk protein. A hesitancy to use vegetable proteins is due to, among other things, bad marketing and inferior products in the beginning of the 1970s. By tradition recombined meat products contain a lot of dry ingredients as, for instance, potato starch and rusks. The water content is high and the meat and fat contents are rather low. The process economy of using soy protein isolate lies very much in the possibility of better yield control. According to a Delfi Study, the future will bring an increasing usage of vegetable proteins in Sweden, While the total protein consumption, however, will not increase.     

Determination of the adulteration of butter

The adulteration of butter is a serious problem due to economic advantages taken by replacing expensive milk fat with cheaper oil without informing the customers. The authentication of milk fat methods include analysis of bulk components, especially triacylglycerols, fatty acids, sterols and tocopherols. Fatty acid and sterol composition was analysed by using GC‐MS. TAG and tocopherol profiles were examined by HPLC with diode array (DAD) and fluorescence detectors (FLDs). In addition, identification of selected TAG of butter fat was conducted by LC‐atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI)/MS technique. The lipid composition of 16 different butters available on Polish market were investigated. The cholesterol content in butter fat ranged from 176.8 to 264.8 mg/100 g of fat and in two samples of milk fat β‐sitosterol was found. The total saturated fatty acid (SFA) content in milk fat was 67.1–73.5%, monounsaturated fatty acid 24.5–30.5% and polyunsaturated fatty acid was 1.2–2.0%. Abnormalities in fatty acid profiles, e.g. high concentration of linoleic fatty acid, were found in two butters. These abnormalities were also determined in TAG profiles. The examination of tocopherols in butter fat confirmed that two products were adulterated by the addition of plant oils because they contained δ‐tocopherol which is typical for plant origin foodstuffs. The methods described are useful for investigating milk fat adulterations, and the most efficient are analysis of sterols and tocopherols composition. Practical applications: The described methods are useful for investigating adulteration of milk fat. Traditional strategies rely on examination of fatty acids methyl esters and TAG; these methods have some disadvantages. Due to the variability of fatty acid composition of milk fat and because TAG analysis is complex and time consuming, FA analysis is not an efficient approach for butter authentication. The most efficient method for butter authentication is qualitative and quantitative analysis of sterols and tocopherols. This analysis will determine if components of plant origin were used for butter production.     

Chemical Form of Dietary Selenium Affects the Fatty Acids Profile and Oxidative Stability of Muscles of Broilers Supplemented with Lycopene and Oils

The aim of this study is to determine the effects of the addition of different chemical forms of selenium (Se)—selenate (SeVI) or selenized yeast (SeY) to chickens’ diet containing equal amounts of fish (FO) and sunflower oils and lycopene (Lyc) on fatty acids (FA) profile and peroxidation yield in thigh muscles of chickens. FA profile is analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry while content of malondialdehyde is determined by ultra‐fast liquid chromatography (UPLC) with photodiode detection. The diets containing SeY or SeVI increase the feed conversion efficiency of chickens compared with the control diet. SeY or SeVI added to the diet containing Lyc and FO stimulates concentrations of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated (PUFA) FA in muscles. Muscles of chickens fed a diet only with Lyc and FO have the highest indices of atherogenic (A‐SFA) and thrombogenic (T‐SFA) saturated FA and the highest ratios of A‐SFA and T‐SFA to all assayed FA. Dietary Se‐compounds also decrease the PUFA peroxidation indices in muscles compared with the diet containing only FO and Lyc. Therefore Se‐compounds may be added to diets including FO and Lyc to improve the growth parameters, nutritive value, and oxidative stability of chicken meat. Practical Applications: Poultry meat, which is characterized by high protein content of high biological value, high minerals and vitamins, and low collagen and fat content, is recommended as particularly desirable in a balanced diet to replace red and highly processed meat. Also, relatively good price makes this type of meat one of the most popular among consumers. The present study aims to check if inclusion of different chemical forms of selenium into chickens’ diets improves nutritional value of broiler meat. Feeding chickens with seleno‐supplements significantly enhances poultry production efficiency and nutritional value of broilers’ meat, because it favorably modifies FA composition (enhanced monounsaturated and polyunsaturated FA and decrease atherogenic and thrombogenic saturated FA in muscles) and reduces lipid oxidation in chickens’ meat. These results are important from the both producers’ and consumers’ point of view and correspond to contemporary nutritional recommendations.     

Phytanic acid – a tetramethyl‐branched fatty acid in food

Phytanic acid is a tetramethyl‐branched isoprenoid fatty acid. Its presence in food is linked with chlorophyll, which contains its precursor, i. e. the alcohol side‐chain phytol. The bioconversion of phytol into phytanic acid is effective particularly in the rumen and in the marine environment. Thus, milk, other dairy products and meat from ruminants as well as fish contain the highest concentrations of phytanic acid in the range of ˜100–500 mg/100 g lipids. Phytanic acid has been proposed as a marker for organic milk because its abundance can be linked to the amount of chlorophyll present in the cows' diet. Phytanic acid is also involved in a very rare but dramatic disease, and persons suffering from the so‐called Refsum syndrome have to restrict themselves to a diet with low levels of phytanic acid.     

Dietary intakes and food sources of fatty acids for Belgian women, focused on n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

The intake of fat, saturated and monounsaturated FA (SFA and MUFA), and omega-6 and omega-3 PUFA has been estimated in 641 Belgian women (age 18-39 y). Their food intake was recorded using a 2-d food diary. The PUFA included were linoleic (LA), alpha-linolenic (LNA), arachidonic (AA), eicosapentaeonoic (EPA), docosapentaenoic (DPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids. The mean total fat intake corresponded to 34.3% of total energy intake (E). The mean intake of the FA groups corresponded to 13.7%, 13.1%, and 6.0% of E, for SFA, MUFA, and PUFA, respectively. The mean intake of LA was 5.3% of E and of LNA was 0.6% of E, with a mean LA/LNA ratio of 8.7. The mean intake of AA was 0.03% of E. The mean intake of EPA, DPA, and DHA was 0.4%, 0.01%, and 0.06% of E, respectively. According to the Belgian recommendations, the total fat and SFA intake was too high for about three-quarters of the population. The mean LA and overall n-6 PUFA intake corresponded with the recommendation, with part of the population exceeding the upper level. Conversely, the population showed a large deficit for LNA and n-3 PUFA. The major food source for LA and LNA was fats and oils, followed by cereal products. The main sources of long-chain PUFA were fish and seafood, and meat, poultry, and eggs. From a public health perspective, it seems desirable to tackle the problem of low n-3 PUFA intake.     

Einfluß der Verfütterung von Ölsaaten und Nebenprodukten aus Ölsaaten auf die Vitamin E-Konzentration in Tierprodukten

Influence of feeding of oilseeds and byproducts from oilseeds on vitamin E concentration of animal products . In 5 feeding studies dairy cows, beef cattle and pigs were fed diets with different contents of oil seeds or oil seed expellers. Thus, the effects on vitamin E concentration in animal products were analyzed against a reference diet, which was free from these components. Dairy cows received 1 kg full fat rapeseed (430 g fat; 31 mg α-tocopherol/kg DM). Beef cattle were fed rations with 7,14 and 21% rapeseed and pigs were administered concentrates containing 10% rapeseed, 20% full fat soybeans or 5 and 10% false flax expeller. Feeding full fat oilseeds or their expellers resulted in an increased fat and α-tocopherol intake. Incorporating full fat rapeseed into the diets induced a significant increase of vitamin E-concentration in milk and other body samples. In contrary to this increase expeller feeding caused a decreased vitamin E-concentration in animal products. The fatty acids pattern of the oilseeds and the expellers have shown a clear influence on the fatty acid pattern of body fat in pigs, followed by milk and finally body fat of ruminants with an insignificant influence only. Fatty acid pattern, disposition for oxidation and vitamin E content of the various fat types influences their induction times. Feeding full fat oilseeds to ruminants, resulted in an increased induction time, in contrast, when fed to pigs the induction time decreased. Feeding expellers, the induction times of the various fat samples of both species decreased, due to the expected destruction of vitamin E.