CO2 emissions from geothermal power plants and natural geothermal activity in Iceland

The ratio of CO₂ emissions from power plants to natural emissions is a measure of the environmental impact associated with geothermal power production. Emissions from Icelandic geothermal power plants amounted to 1.6 × 10⁸ kg year⁻¹ in 2002. Two independent estimates of natural CO₂ emissions range between 1 × 10⁸ and 2 × 10⁹ kg year⁻¹. Thus, power plant emissions are significant compared to estimated total emissions (i.e., not less than 8–16%). However, direct CO₂ flux measurements from four of the approximately 40 geothermal/volcanic systems in the country amounted to 3 × 10⁸ kg year⁻¹, indicating that these estimates of the total natural flux may be too low.     

CO2 and pollutant emissions from passenger cars in China

In this paper, CO₂ and pollutant emissions of PCs in China from 2000 to 2005 were calculated based on a literature review and measured data. The future trends of PC emissions were also projected under three scenarios to explore the reduction potential of possible policy measures. Estimated baseline emissions of CO, HC, NO_x, PM₁₀ and CO₂ were respectively 3.16×10⁶, 5.14×10⁵, 3.56×10⁵, 0.83×10⁴ and 9.14×10⁷ tons for China’s PCs in 2005 with an uneven distribution among provinces. Under a no improvement (NI) scenario, PC emissions of CO, HC, NO_x, PM₁₀ and CO₂ in 2020 are respectively estimated to be 4.5, 2.5, 2.5, 7.9 and 8.0 times that of 2005. However, emissions other than CO₂ from PCs are estimated to decrease nearly 70% by 2020 compared to NI scenario mainly due to technological improvement linked to the vehicle emissions standards under a recent policy (RP) scenario. Fuel economy (FE) enhancement and the penetration of advanced propulsion/fuel systems could be co-benefit measures to control CO₂ and pollutant emissions for the mid and long terms. Significant variations were found in PC emission inventories between different studies primarily due to uncertainties in activity levels and/or emission factors (EF).     

CO2 emissions,energy consumption,and output in France

This paper examines the dynamic causal relationships between pollutant emissions, energy consumption, and output for France using cointegration and vector error-correction modelling techniques. We argue that these variables are strongly inter-related and therefore their relationship must be examined using an integrated framework. The results provide evidence for the existence of a fairly robust long-run relationship between these variables for the period 1960–2000. The causality results support the argument that economic growth exerts a causal influence on growth of energy use and growth of pollution in the long run. The results also point to a uni-directional causality running from growth of energy use to output growth in the short run.     

CO2 emissions,energy usage,and output in Central America

This study extends the recent work of Ang (2007) [Ang, J.B., 2007. CO₂ emissions, energy consumption, and output in France. Energy Policy 35, 4772–4778] in examining the causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, and output within a panel vector error correction model for six Central American countries over the period 1971–2004. In long-run equilibrium energy consumption has a positive and statistically significant impact on emissions while real output exhibits the inverted U-shape pattern associated with the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. The short-run dynamics indicate unidirectional causality from energy consumption and real output, respectively, to emissions along with bidirectional causality between energy consumption and real output. In the long-run there appears to be bidirectional causality between energy consumption and emissions.     

Vapour/liquid fractionation of rare earths,Y, Na,K, NH4, Cl,HCO3, SO4 and borate in fluids from the Piancastagnaio geothermal field,Italy

Vapour/liquid fractionation of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY), Na⁺, K⁺, NH₄⁺, HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻ and borate in geothermal fluids from the Piancastagnaio geothermal field (Mt. Amiata geothermal area, Tuscany, central Italy) were evaluated based on the chemistry of collected liquids and condensed vapours. Apparent vapour–liquid partitioning factors (^appD^V/L) of REY vary from 0.3 to 0.01. These factors are much higher than those of Na (<0.001) and K (∼0.001). Volatile components are ion pairings such as NH₄HCO₃^o, NH₄Cl^o, NaHCO₃^o, CaSO₄^o and REYO(HCO)₃^o ⇔ REY(OH)CO₃^o. In vapour, REY and NH₄⁺ are negatively correlated. High and low ^appD^V/L(REY) indicate variations of NH₄⁺ concentrations in liquids. The results of this study are relevant to the understanding of element migration and deposition under hydrothermal boiling conditions.     

CO2 emissions,energy consumption and economic growth in BRIC countries

This paper examines dynamic causal relationships between pollutant emissions, energy consumption and output for a panel of BRIC countries over the period 1971–2005, except for Russia (1990–2005). In long-run equilibrium energy consumption has a positive and statistically significant impact on emissions, while real output exhibits the inverted U-shape pattern associated with the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis with the threshold income of 5.393 (in logarithms). In the short term, changes in emissions are driven mostly by the error correction term and short term energy consumption shocks, as opposed to short term output shocks for each country. Short-term deviations from the long term equilibrium take from 0.770 years (Russia) to 5.848 years (Brazil) to correct. The panel causality results indicate there are energy consumption–emissions bidirectional strong causality and energy consumption–output bidirectional long-run causality, along with unidirectional both strong and short-run causalities from emissions and energy consumption, respectively, to output. Overall, in order to reduce emissions and not to adversely affect economic growth, increasing both energy supply investment and energy efficiency, and stepping up energy conservation policies to reduce unnecessary wastage of energy can be initiated for energy-dependent BRIC countries.     

CO2 emissions,nuclear energy,renewable energy and economic growth in the US

This study explores the causal relationship between carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, renewable and nuclear energy consumption and real GDP for the US for the period 1960–2007. Using a modified version of the Granger causality test, we found a unidirectional causality running from nuclear energy consumption to CO₂ emissions without feedback but no causality running from renewable energy to CO₂ emissions. The econometric evidence seems to suggest that nuclear energy consumption can help to mitigate CO₂ emissions, but so far, renewable energy consumption has not reached a level where it can make a significant contribution to emissions reduction.     

An econometric study of CO2 emissions,energy consumption,income and foreign trade in Turkey

This study attempts to empirically examine the dynamic causal relationships between carbon emissions, energy consumption, income, and foreign trade in the case of Turkey using the time-series data for the period 1960–2005. This research tests the interrelationship between the variables using the bounds testing to cointegration procedure. The bounds test results indicate that there exist two forms of long-run relationships between the variables. In the case of first form of long-run relationship, carbon emissions are determined by energy consumption, income and foreign trade. In the case of second long-run relationship, income is determined by carbon emissions, energy consumption and foreign trade. An augmented form of Granger causality analysis is conducted amongst the variables. The long-run relationship of CO₂ emissions, energy consumption, income and foreign trade equation is also checked for the parameter stability. The empirical results suggest that income is the most significant variable in explaining the carbon emissions in Turkey which is followed by energy consumption and foreign trade. Moreover, there exists a stable carbon emissions function. The results also provide important policy recommendations.     

Modeling the prospects of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles to reduce CO2 emissions

This study models the CO₂ emissions from electric (EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and compares the results to published values for the CO₂ emissions from conventional vehicles based on internal combustion engines (ICE). PHEVs require fewer batteries than EVs which can make them lighter and more efficient than EVs. PHEVs can also operate their onboard ICEs more efficiently than can conventional vehicles. From this, it was theorized that PHEVs may be able to emit less CO₂ than both conventional vehicles and EVs given certain power generation mixes of varying CO₂ intensities. Amongst the results it was shown that with a highly CO₂ intensive power generation mix, such as in China, PHEVs had the potential to be responsible for fewer tank to wheel CO₂ emissions over their entire range than both a similar electric and conventional vehicle. The results also showed that unless highly CO₂ intensive countries pursue a major decarbonization of their power generation, they will not be able to fully take advantage of the ability of EVs and PHEVs to reduce the CO₂ emissions from automotive transport.     

Modeling the CO2 emissions, energy use, and economic growth in Russia

This paper applies the co-integration technique and causality test to examine the dynamic relationships between pollutant emissions, energy use, and real output during the period between 1990 and 2007 for Russia. The empirical results show that in the long-run equilibrium, emissions appear to be energy use elastic and output inelastic. This elasticity suggests high energy use responsiveness to changes in emissions. The output exhibits a negative significant impact on emissions and does not support EKC hypothesis. These indicate that both economic growth and energy conservation policies can reduce emissions and no negative impact on economic development. The causality results indicate that there is a bidirectional strong Granger-causality running between output, energy use and emissions, and whenever a shock occurs in the system, each variable makes a short-run adjustment to restore the long-run equilibrium. The average speed of adjustment is as low as just over 0.26 years. Hence, in order to reduce emissions, the best environmental policy is to increase infrastructure investment to improve energy efficiency, and to step up energy conservation policies to reduce any unnecessary waste of energy. That is, energy conservation is expected to improve energy efficiency, thereby promoting economic growth.     

Multiobjective optimisation of integrated energy systems for remote communities considering economics and CO2 emissions

The methods for designing, planning and managing integrated energy systems, while holistically considering the major economic and environmental factors, are still embryonic. However, the first phase of the design is often crucial if we want to manage resources better and reduce energy consumption and pollution. Considering integrated energy systems implies dealing with complex systems in which the synergy between the various components is best exploited (for example the thermal energy of a diesel engine produced during the night is complimented by the Rankine organic cycle of a solar thermal plant). The context of isolated communities further increases the difficulties when considering the long distance of transport required to supply fossil fuels. These sites are often located in very precarious environments, with limited or nonexistent resources except for solar energy, and with frequent additional needs for desalination (in arid zones).This paper illustrates a holistic method to rationalize the design of energy integrated systems. It is based on a superstructure (collection of models of all envisaged technologies) and a multi-objective optimisation (resources, demand, energy, emission, costs) using an evolutionary algorithm. The approach proposed allows the identification of more complete and more coherent integrated configurations characterizing the most promising designs (also taking into account the time dependency aspects). It also allows to better structure the information in view of a participative decision approach. The study shows that the economic implementation of renewable energy (solar) is even more difficult, compared to diesel based solutions, in cases of isolated communities with high load variations. New infrastructure or retrofit cases are considered.     

CO2 emissions vs. CO2 responsibility: An input–output approach for the Turkish economy

Recently, global warming (greenhouse effect) and its effects have become one of the hottest topics in the world agenda. There have been several international attempts to reduce the negative effects of global warming. The Kyoto Protocol can be cited as the most important agreement which tries to limit the countries’ emissions within a time horizon. For this reason, it becomes important to calculate the greenhouse gas emissions of countries. The aim of this study is to estimate the amount of CO₂—the most important greenhouse gas—emissions, for the Turkish economy. An extended input–output model is estimated by using 1996 data in order to identify the sources of CO₂ emissions and to discuss the share of sectors in total emission. Besides, ‘CO₂ responsibility’, which takes into account the CO₂ content of imports, is estimated for the Turkish economy. The sectoral CO₂ emissions and CO₂ responsibilities are compared and these two notions are linked to foreign trade volume. One of the main conclusions is that the manufacturing industry has the first place in both of the rankings for CO₂ emissions and CO₂ responsibilities, while agriculture and husbandry has the last place.     

Variables affecting energy efficiency and CO2 emissions in the steel industry

Specific energy consumption (SEC) is an energy efficiency indicator widely used in industry for measuring the energy efficiency of different processes. In this paper, the development of energy efficiency and CO₂ emissions of steelmaking is studied by analysing the energy data from a case mill. First, the specific energy consumption figures were calculated using different system boundaries, such as the process level, mill level and mill site level. Then, an energy efficiency index was developed to evaluate the development of the energy efficiency at the mill site. The effects of different production conditions on specific energy consumption and specific CO₂ emissions were studied by PLS analysis. As theory expects, the production rate of crude steel and the utilisation of recycled steel were shown to affect the development of energy efficiency at the mill site. This study shows that clearly defined system boundaries help to clarify the role of on-site energy conversion and make a difference between the final energy consumption and primary energy consumption of an industrial plant with its own energy production.     

Environmental and economic benefits resulting from citizens’ participation in CO2 emissions trading: An efficient alternative solution to the voluntary compensation of CO2 emissions

Over the last few months in the emerging and lucrative carbon project market, a growing number of organizations have proposed to offset citizens’ greenhouse gas emissions. The target of these carbon-offset initiatives is to satisfy the increasing demand of individuals wishing to take part in the fight against climate change. In this paper, we review and criticize these carbon-offsetting programs in general terms. We then propose an alternative that, in our opinion, should prove to be a better solution for citizens who are willing to pay for protecting the environment. This alternative is to organize citizens’ participation in carbon emissions trading on a large scale in order to purchase and retire (destroy) CO₂ permits. To do so, a benevolent Regulator or non-governmental organization must correct certain CO₂ emissions market failures; this particularly concerns the high transaction costs, which represent an entry barrier and prevent citizens from purchasing and withholding permits. Based on theoretical findings, we demonstrate that implementing citizens’ participation in emissions trading is an economically efficient and a morally preferable option.     

CO2 emissions,energy consumption and economic growth in China: A panel data analysis

This paper examines the causal relationships between carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption and real economic output using panel cointegration and panel vector error correction modeling techniques based on the panel data for 28 provinces in China over the period 1995–2007. Our empirical results show that CO₂ emissions, energy consumption and economic growth have appeared to be cointegrated. Moreover, there exists bidirectional causality between CO₂ emissions and energy consumption, and also between energy consumption and economic growth. It has also been found that energy consumption and economic growth are the long-run causes for CO₂ emissions and CO₂ emissions and economic growth are the long-run causes for energy consumption. The results indicate that China's CO₂ emissions will not decrease in a long period of time and reducing CO₂ emissions may handicap China's economic growth to some degree. Some policy implications of the empirical results have finally been proposed.     

Role of energy efficiency standards in reducing CO2 emissions in Germany: An assessment with TIMES

Energy efficiency is widely viewed as an important element of energy and environmental policy. Applying the TIMES model, this paper examines the impacts of additional efficiency improvement measures (as prescribed by the ACROPOLIS project) over the baseline, at the level of individual sectors level as well as in a combined implementation, on the German energy system in terms of energy savings, technological development, emissions and costs. Implementing efficiency measures in all sectors together, CO₂ reduction is possible through substitution of conventional gas or oil boilers by condensing gas boilers especially in single family houses, shifting from petrol to diesel vehicles in private transport, increased use of electric vehicles, gas combined cycle power plants and CHP (combined heat and power production) etc. At a sectoral level, the residential sector offers double benefits of CO₂ reduction and cost savings. In the transport sector, on the other hand, CO₂ reduction is the most expensive, using bio-fuels and methanol to achieve the efficiency targets.     

A model analysis of clean development mechanisms to reduce both CO2 and SO2 emissions between Japan and China

It is necessary for Japan to support the development of desulfurization policies of China to solve global and local environmental problems. This study proposes a “double clean development mechanism” to reduce both CO₂ and SO₂ emissions at the same time. The purpose of this study is to investigate the consequences for both countries' energy economies of following double clean development mechanism between Japan and China. A dynamic optimization model is developed to estimate the effects of Japanese investments in China for carbon dioxide recovery-disposal and emission desulfurization technologies. The simulation results suggest that a double clean development mechanism can effectively mitigate the damage caused by SO₂ emissions because the clean development mechanism itself can reduce SO₂ emissions, e.g. by switching to fuels. However, China might not be willing to accept restrictions on SO₂ emissions. This study also examines whether China will be able to maintain high growth rates with a clean development mechanism under the CO₂ and SO₂ restriction. The analysis shows that increasing the upper limit of investment from Japan to China can enhance the economies of the both nations. The effect of nuclear power installation on economic performance is also investigated for the both nations.     

Modeling and forecasting the CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and economic growth in Brazil

This paper examines the dynamic relationships between pollutant emissions, energy consumption, and the output for Brazil during 1980-2007. The Grey prediction model (GM) is applied to predict three variables during 2008-2013. In the long-run equilibrium emissions appear to be both energy consumption and output inelastic, but energy is a more important determinant of emissions than output. This may be because Brazilian unsustainable land use and forestry contribute most to the country’s greenhouse gas emissions. The findings of the inverted U-shaped relationships of both emissions-income and energy consumption-income imply that both environmental damage and energy consumption firstly increase with income, then stabilize, and eventually decline. The causality results indicate that there is a bidirectional strong causality running between income, energy consumption and emissions. In order to reduce emissions and to avoid a negative effect on the economic growth, Brazil should adopt the dual strategy of increasing investment in energy infrastructure and stepping up energy conservation policies to increase energy efficiency and reduce wastage of energy. The forecasting ability of GM is compared with the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model over the out-of-sample period between 2002 and 2007. All of the optimal GMs and ARIMAs have a strong forecasting performance with MAPEs of less than 3%.     

CO2 emissions,electricity consumption and output in ASEAN

This study examines the causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions, electricity consumption and economic growth within a panel vector error correction model for five ASEAN countries over the period 1980–2006. The long-run estimates indicate that there is a statistically significant positive association between electricity consumption and emissions and a non-linear relationship between emissions and real output, consistent with the environmental Kuznets curve. The long-run estimates, however, do not indicate the direction of causality between the variables. The results from the Granger causality tests suggest that in the long-run there is unidirectional Granger causality running from electricity consumption and emissions to economic growth. The results also point to unidirectional Granger causality running from emissions to electricity consumption in the short-run.     

The Chinese nonferrous metals industry—energy use and CO2 emissions

China is the largest nonferrous metals producer in the world and largest consumer for six kinds of common nonferrous metals including copper, aluminum, zinc, lead, nickel and tin. This paper provides an overview of the nonferrous metals industry in China, from a CO₂ emissions reduction perspective. It addresses energy use disaggregated by energy carrier and by province. It focuses on an analysis of energy efficiency in the production of aluminum, copper and nickel. A few large-scale enterprises produce most of the aluminum, copper and nickel in China, and use manufacturing facilities that were built within the last 20 years or have recently upgraded their main production equipment and processes. The energy efficiency of these operations is not particularly low compared to international practice. A large number of small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) operate nonferrous metals production facilities which rank low in energy efficiency and therefore are highly energy intensive per unit of physical output. Backward production capacity would be phased out continuously by enforcing the energy intensity norms.