Stability and change in adult intelligence: I. Analysis of longitudinal covariance structures.

Examines 2 questions of central interest in adult intellectual development—the equivalence of psychometric tests' measurement properties at different ages and the stability of individual differences in intelligence over time. A series of longitudinal factor analyses was performed using the LISREL program to model longitudinal data from K. W. Schaie's (1979, 1983) Seattle Longitudinal Study with individuals aged 20–74 yrs. Ss studied included 162 in Sample 1 and 2,250 in Sample 2. Results indicate complete invariance in the loadings of 5 subtests of the Primary Mental Abilities battery on a general intelligence factor. Individual differences in general intelligence were highly stable over 14-yr epochs, with standardized factor correlations averaging about .9 between adjacent 7-yr testing intervals. Results indicate that most individuals in this relatively select longitudinal sample maintained their relative ordering in intelligence. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of longitudinal data within accelerated longitudinal designs.

Using latent growth curve methodology and combining information from 4 different overlapping age cohorts, each measured at 1-yr intervals over a 3-yr period, a single developmental trajectory for adolescent alcohol use was formed spanning 12–17 years of age (n?=?461). At the same time, data collected from the same study sample on a single cohort (n?=?81) over 6 annual assessments (ages 12–17) was examined to determine whether the accelerated design adequately approximated the developmental trend within a true longitudinal design observed over 6 yrs of data collection. Comparison of separate models and a combined multisample model revealed no significant differences between the 2 designs in their representation of initial status and growth, as well as similar effects for the covariates of gender, deviance, and parent alcohol use on initial status and growth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fourteen-year cohort-sequential analyses of adult intellectual development.

Provides a comprehensive analysis of data from 412 Ss (mean ages 22–67 yrs at 1st test) on the Primary Mental Abilities Test. Ss took part in 1 of 2 longitudinal sequences, 1956–1970 or 1963–1977. Comparable data are also reported on cross-sectional sequences collected in 1956, 1963, 1970, and 1977. A decline in intelligence became clearly evident after age 60 yrs, with from a third to a half standard deviation decrement over a 14-yr period. Contrary to earlier reports (e.g., K. W. Schaie and I. A. Parham, 1977), small but significant decrements were noted over the 53–67 yr age range. Cohort/sequential cohort effects, which were not attributable to age changes, were found for several subtests. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of interpersonal understanding: A longitudinal and comparative study of normal and disturbed youths.

Using an interview procedure, levels of interpersonal understanding were assessed for 17 behaviorally and emotionally disturbed boys and were compared longitudinally, across 3 assessments at 2- and 4-yr intervals, with those of 17 better-adjusted male peers matched for age, race, SES, and WISC-R IQ. Ss were in Grades 1–6 at Time 1, 3–8 at Time 2, and 7–22 at Time 3. Results suggest that the sequence of progression through levels of interpersonal understanding was the same for both disturbed and normal samples but that the developmental trend of trouble Ss lagged behind that of the higher-functioning group. However, longitudinal follow-up results suggest that the developmental lag of the disturbed Ss was diminishing with time. An exploratory study conducted during Time 3 suggested that relatively low levels of interpersonal understanding were related to the self-reported use of physical and avoidant strategies to resolve conflicts. Results are considered in the context of theoretical relations between thought and action. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of moral judgment development to formal education.

Tested Ss from an ongoing longitudinal study initiated by the present 1st author and colleagues (see record 1974-32073-001) at 2-yr intervals after high school graduation on the Defining Issues Test and other measures of moral thinking (e.g., socio-moral concepts test, political attitudes test) to investigate the relationship of moral-judgment development to formal education. In a 3rd testing 4 yrs after high school, 59 Ss participated; of these, 39 were in a 4th testing 6 yrs later. When Ss were divided into low- and high-education groups, depending on how many years of college they attended, the groups showed increasingly divergent developmental pathways. The high-education group showed increasing gains, and the low-education group showed a leveling off. Years in college added significantly to the predictability of moral judgment in young adulthood, above and beyond that accounted for by initial high school scores on the same moral-judgment measures. Results complement and extend findings from other cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on the relation of formal education to moral judgment. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality€nvironment constellations and alcohol use: A process-oriented study of intraindividual change during adolescence.

Tested the salience of documented risk and protective factors in contributing to intra-individual changes in alcohol use behaviors and negative consequences of use during adolescence within an interactionist and process-oriented perspective. 870 Ss from a longitudinal study of normal adolescent development completed self-report questionnaires. Ss were 12 or 15 yrs old at the 1st test and were retested twice at 3-yr intervals (92% longitudinal retest rate). Person–environment constellations comprising high impulsivity, disinhibition, and deviant peer group associations, and to a lesser extent, low parental control, most strongly influenced high-risk developmental trajectories of use intensity and problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of language subtypes in learning disabled children.

Hypothesized that children characterized by deficits in narrative skills, relative to other language skills (e.g., syntactic and semantic), would be most at risk for general academic problems, especially in reading comprehension. Using data from a previous longitudinal study by the 1st author and J. D. McKinney (see record 1985-02522-001), different subtypes of language disability were identified in 63 6- and 7-yr-old learning disabled (LD) children. Comparison data had been obtained from 66 non-LD children matched to the LD sample on age, race, and sex. Results, obtained with hierarchical cluster analysis, indicate that 6 language subtypes were derived and that these were both internally consistent and externally valid, being differentially linked to reading and math achievement over a 3-yr period. Narrative ability was shown to be relatively important in predicting academic outcomes. The 3 subtypes showing the poorest academic outcomes had the highest relative scores in syntax and semantics. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of social problem solving of children from open and traditional classrooms: A two-year longitudinal study.

Examined the hypothesized relation between open classrooms and children's social problem-solving performance by comparing, over a 2-yr period, the social problem-solving cognitions of 2 groups of children who had attended open and traditional classrooms, respectively, for 3 yrs. Ss in Phase 1 were 60 children (average age 9.5 yrs) from open classrooms and 60 matched chidren from traditional classrooms; 40 Ss from open classrooms and 40 Ss from traditional classrooms who had participated in Phase 1 were eligible to serve in Phase 2. The 8 open and 8 traditional classrooms used in the study were found to be different treatment groups based on ratings of openness and restrictiveness. The prediction of a relation between the open classroom and greater social problem-solving cognitions in children was based on previous research suggesting that the social-cognitive climate of the open classroom is more conducive to children's independent decision making and initiative. Multivariate analyses of repeated measures showed that open-classroom Ss had higher scores in social problem-solving cognitions and correspondingly higher scores in self-esteem and ego-strength. Educational implications of the findings are discussed in terms of the social-cognitive climate of open and restrictive classrooms and their effect on children's social-cognitive development. Limitations of the nonequivalent, nonrandomized group design used in the present study are also discussed. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality change over 40 years of adulthood: Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of two longitudinal samples.

Normative personality change over 40 years was shown in 2 longitudinal cohorts with hierarchical linear modeling of California Psychological Inventory data obtained at multiple times between ages 21-75. Although themes of change and the paucity of differences attributable to gender and cohort largely supported findings of multiethnic cross-sectional samples, the authors also found much quadratic change and much individual variability. The form of quadratic change supported predictions about the influence of period of life and social climate as factors in change over the adult years: Scores on Dominance and Independence peaked in the middle age of both cohorts, and scores on Responsibility were lowest during peak years of the culture of individualism. The idea that personality change is most pronounced before age 30 and then reaches a plateau received no support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms.

The development of depressive attributional style (AS) and its role as a cognitive diathesis for depression were examined in children and adolescents (Grades 2-9). In a 4-wave longitudinal study of 3 overlapping age cohorts, AS, negative life events, and depressive symptoms were evaluated every 12 months. Consistency of children's attributions across situations was moderately high at all ages. The cross-sectional structure of AS changed with age, as stability became a more salient aspect of AS than internality and globality. The structure of AS also changed, becoming more traitlike as children grew older. In longitudinal analyses, evidence of a Cognitive Diathesis × Stress interaction did not emerge until Grades 8 and 9, suggesting that AS may not serve as a diathesis for depression at younger ages. Results suggest that attributional models of depression may require modification before they are applied across developmental levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social, familial, and maternal state variables on neonatal and infant health.

The medical protocols of a Danish birth cohort of 5,036 infants were summarized into 5 infant outcome measures: birth weight, neonatal physical health, neonatal neurological status, 1-yr physical health, and 1-yr motor development. All Ss received uniform medical care during pregnancy. 17 indices representing both medical and environmental variables were used as predictors in hierarchical regression analyses. Consistent negative environmental influences on neonatal outcomes were not found, presumably due to the uniform medical care during pregnancy that each mother received. A stronger environmental influence was observable at 1 yr of age. Institutional daycare, mother's employment, family size, whether the child was planned, and SES all contributed significantly to the regression equation for 1-yr physical health. This effect was anticipated, since no uniform medical treatment was provided the cohort subsequent to birth. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting language development in deaf children using subscales of the Leiter International Performance Scale.

Investigated the Leiter International Performance Scale (LIPS) as a predictor of language development in 139 deaf children (initially aged 3, 4, or 5 yrs) as part of a 4-yr longitudinal study. Ss were administered the Language Assessment Battery yearly and completed the LIPS during the 1st yr and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised (WISC—R) or the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) in the final year of the study. Data indicate that scores on the full LIPS and on the LIPS Symbolic Functions subtest were consistent predictors of vocabulary growth after age 4 yrs and between ages 3 and 5 yrs, respectively. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture and the development of everyday social explanation.

Predicted that a developmental test would show (1) that individuals of all ages tested in the Indian and American cultures would display the cognitive skills in classification required to generate dispositional attributions and (2) that references to general dispositions would not vary as a function of attributors' exposure to objective conditions identified by theorists as making taxonomic categorization of behavior adaptive. In Study 1, test data were obtained from 40 middle-class Hindu adults and 90 8-, 11-, and 15-yr-old Hindu children and from 30 middle-class American adults and 90 8-, 11-, and 15-yr-old American children. Ss were asked to narrate 2 prosocial behaviors and 2 deviant behaviors and to explain why the behaviors were undertaken. Results show that at older ages, Americans made greater reference to general dispositions and less reference to contextual factors in explanation. In Study 2, 20 American university students were tested on deviant behavior to determine if differences were cross-cultural or informational. Results show that there were cross-cultural and developmental differences related to contrasting cultural conceptions of Ss acquired over development in the 2 cultures rather than from cognitive, experiential, and informational differences between attributors. (86 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Randomized trial of two parent-training programs for families with conduct-disordered children.

Assigned mothers (mean age 30 yrs) of 35 3–8 yr old conduct-disordered children to 1 of 3 groups. Group 1 was a waiting list control; Group 2 had 9 wks of individual therapy; and Group 3 had 9 wks of therapist-led group therapy based on a standardized videotape modeling program. Ss and their children were assessed at baseline, immediately after treatment, and 1 yr later using home visits, twice per week telephone reports, and questionnaires. Results show that 1-mo after treatment Ss in Groups 2 and 3 showed significant attitudinal and behavioral improvements that were maintained at 1-yr follow-up. Children of Ss in these groups showed reduction in child noncompliance and deviant behavior that continued in reduction at 1-yr follow-up. It is concluded that although both treatments offered equivalent and sustained improvements, the therapeutic efficiency of the videotape modeling group format was more cost-effective. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

MMPI evaluation of 5-year methadone treatment status.

Evaluated treatment outcome over a 5-yr period for 148 1st admissions (mean age, 27.14 yrs) to a methadone treatment program. Eleven Ss (7%) were successful treatment completions, 16 Ss (11%) transferred to other methadone programs, 38 Ss (26%) remained in continuous treatment, and 83 Ss (56%) were unsuccessful treatment terminations. Discriminant analysis using the MMPI suggested that the more stable Ss at admission had the best treatment outcome. For the patients in continuous treatment, MMPIs administered at 6-wk, 6-mo, and 5-yr intervals indicated that this group of Ss did not change on the personality dimension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in middle childhood and early adolescence.

Examined stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in the context of both normal and deviant behavioral development. The design included 3 age cohorts with a total of 653 Ss separated in age by 3 yrs. Aggression and withdrawal were measured using the Peer Evaluation Inventory initially when the Ss were in Grades 1, 4, and 7 and a 2nd time when the Ss were in Grades 4, 7, and 10, respectively. Members of 4 classification groups were included in the sample: 183 Ss in an aggressive group, 219 Ss in a withdrawn group, 251 Ss in an aggressive-withdrawn group, and a nondeviant control group consisting of 1,103 Ss. The stability of aggression was found to be moderately high, regardless of sex of S or grade at time of initial assessment. Moderate stability was found for withdrawal for both boys and girls when initial assessments were conducted at Grades 4 and 7. The withdrawn Ss became more withdrawn over the 3-yr period. It is concluded that, for many children, the problems of aggression and withdrawal do not appear to be transitory. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal analysis of logical reasoning relationships: Conservation and transitive inference.

102 children originally assessed in 1973 were retested 1 yr later on a series of conservation and transitive inference tasks (length and weight content areas). An additional sample of matched cohort/grade Ss (1st- and 4th-grade levels) were assessed in the 2nd yr only to permit evaluation of repeated measurement biases for the longitudinal sample. Results indicate that there were no effects of presentation order, selective survival, repeated measurement, sex, or content area; these variables did not interact with each other. Analyses of the longitudinal Ss' conservation task performances over the annual interval indicated significant grade-level distinctions, Yr 1 vs Yr 2 differences, and type of conservation distinctions (identity vs equivalence). Identity conservation scores were consistently superior to equivalence conservation scores, a superiority most notable for the youngest Ss. Transitive inference tasks were significantly less difficult than equivalence conservation tasks. Most importantly, evidence for a developmental mastery sequence (transitivity-conservation) was demonstrated. Identity-equivalence conservation task distinctions were most apparent for the without verbal justification response criterion. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal and cross-sectional twin data on cognitive abilities in adulthood: the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging

Cross-sequential methods of analysis, designed to separate age and cohort effects, were applied to data from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. Thirteen cognitive variables were collected at 3 times of measurement separated by 3-year intervals. Data were available from 85 individuals from monozygotic (MZ) pairs reared apart, 132 from MZ pairs reared together, 207 from dizygotic (DZ) pairs reared apart, and 178 from DZ pairs reared together (age range at first assessment: 41-84 years). Time x Cohort interactions were found for mean performance on 8 of the measures, revealing stable mean performance in the younger cohorts and longitudinal decreases in mean performance in the older cohorts. Cohort and time effects for total variance were mixed; little evidence was found for increases in variance with age. Age changes and cohort differences in genetic and environmental components of variance were test-specific; several Cohort x Time interactions attained significance. Heritability of the general cognitive ability factor showed significant longitudinal decreases over time in the older cohorts.     

The young person's job search: Insights from a study.

This condensation of a longer report presents some of the findings of a study of job search approaches used by young people. Using 2 cohorts on which past test information was available—260 Ss about 20 yrs old and 250 Ss about 32 yrs old—data were collected on what techniques had been used in the participants' job search; which approaches were thought to be most effective; and what factors, when measured in high school, best predicted employment status and satisfaction at the time of the study. The samples were weighted toward urban minority youth, and analyses were performed by cohort, race, and sex. A profile of the successful job-seeking youth is drawn from these analyses. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)