Satisfaction with social support during crisis: Intimacy and self-esteem as critical determinants.

Satisfaction with social support was studied longitudinally in 113 17–40 yr old Israeli women following the outcome of both normal and medically complicated pregnancies (delivery by cesarean section, delivery of an infant weighing under 2 kg, or spontaneous abortion before the 3rd trimester). Ss were interviewed concerning the size of their social networks, the number of friends and family members in their networks, perceived intimacy with spouse, and perceived intimacy with at least 1 friend and 1 family member. Included in the interviews were measures of self-esteem, intimacy, social network structure, and satisfaction with support. Findings show that greater intimacy with spouse and with friends was related to greater satisfaction with support received during the crisis period. Intimate ties contributed to satisfaction with support independent of self-esteem, social network parameters, and type of pregnancy outcome. Social network parameters and pregnancy outcome were not related to satisfaction with support. Among Ss low in self-esteem, greater intimacy with family was related to lower satisfaction with support if the Ss lacked intimate ties with spouse or a friend. Clinical and social psychological theories regarding reaction to aid are discussed. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developing close relationships: Changing patterns of interaction between pair members and social networks.

To study the connections binding close relationships and networks of kin and friends, measures of social participation were developed from daily reports of social activity provided by 89 undergraduates involved in dating relationships. These measures included size of the network and the frequency and length of time spent interacting with network members. As hypothesized, all network measures were inversely related to the stage of courtship under scrutiny. Ss in the later stages of courtship, relative to those in the early stages of courtship, interacted with fewer people, less often, and for shorter periods. However, based on longitudinal analyses, frequency and duration were more robust indicators than size of changes in social participation with network members concurrent with an advancing or deteriorating close relationship. Findings are discussed in light of the advantages of longitudinal over cross-sectional designs. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Veridicality of social support: A comparison of principal and network members' responses.

Examined (1) the extent to which there is agreement between an individual and his/her social network member in their report of whether social support is provided or received (i.e., veridicality); (2) the relation between veridicality and feelings of closeness; and (3) the effect of veridicality on well-being. Ss were part of a larger national study and included 218 principal Ss (aged 70–95 yrs) and 497 network members (aged 18–92 yrs). Veridicality was assessed by matching the congruence of perception between the principal and network Ss. Overall well-being was measured through an assessment of life satisfaction. Specific veridicality ranged from 49 to 60%; overall veridicality reached a high of 79%. When examined by relationship, both specific and overall veridicality was highest between spouses, somewhat high among other family members, and lowest among friends. Feelings of closeness were significantly related to veridicality; principal Ss who reported feeling close to their network members had greater veridicality. Veridicality was not significantly related to life satisfaction, happiness, or negative affect. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Living arrangements and social networks of elders. A selection of findings from a NESTOR-Study

This article presents an overview of the design and results of the NESTOR survey 'Living Arrangements and Social Networks of Older Adults', an empirical study, started in 1992, among a representative sample of 4495 people, aged 55-89, selected from the population registers of 11 municipalities in the Netherlands. Questions were asked about living arrangements, the composition and functions of social networks, and important transitions in the marital, parental and occupational careers. The results indicated a wide diversity in living arrangements and social networks, a diversity which is particularly visible among the young old. They not only have larger networks, but are also more likely to live alone, to be divorced and to participate in shared housing arrangements. The networks vary considerably in size, from 0 to more than 40 important relationships. The decrease in network size with age appears to be directly related to specific life events such as widowhood, physical handicaps, residential moves etc. About 2/3 of the relationships are family relationships: parents, children (in law), grandchildren (in law), brothers and sisters (in law), uncles and aunts. Older people tend to be in touch at least once a month with the majority of close family members. The intensity of supportive exchanges (giving and receiving instrumental and emotional support in the twelve relationships with the highest levels of contact) is moderate, however mostly in balance. Only the very old receive somewhat more instrumental support and give considerably less than the 'young-old'. We studied the shift in balance between giving and receiving over a period of 12 months among a small proportion of the sample, checking a central hypothesis of exchange theory. In some cases a new balance evolves. In others the relationship continues to exist for a number of reasons, despite the imbalance. Early life experiences appear to be important for later life outcomes. Those who experienced the divorce of their parents before the age of 15 or those whose parents lived apart permanently (e.g. unmarried mothers) have a smaller social network and feel more lonely. Marital history has an impact on patterns of informal and formal care. E.g., those respondents without a partner who have children are less likely to use formal care than those who are childless. Among divorced elderly the use of formal care not only varies between men and women but also differs according to the marriage in which the children are born, first or second marriage. Occupational history is strongly related to the income level of older women living alone.     

Widowhood and illness: A comparison of social network characteristics in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

This study examined social network characteristics of adults aged 70 to 90 years in relation to widowhood and illness in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Participants were drawn from representative samples from each of the 4 countries (total N?=?1,331). Resource deficit profiles based on whether respondents were widowed, ill, both, or neither were directly related to social network characteristics for German and Japanese adults, were differentially related by gender and age for French adults, and were not related to social networks of Americans. Country, gender, and age differences in total network size, proportion of close network members, and frequency of contact with network members are reported. Similarities and differences found in the associations between normative late-life deficits and social network characteristics in the 4 countries point to the importance of investigating sociocultural factors that mediate the impact of resource loss and afford life quality in very old age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in predicting loneliness from social network characteristics.

Examined gender differences in predicting loneliness from measures of social network structure and a measure of perceived social support. Study 1 (including 179 undergraduates and 124 students [mean age 29 yrs]) used the traditional measure of network density in which the number of relationships among network members was determined. Study 2 (including 143 undergraduates [17–46 yrs]) used an index of density that assessed the extent of closeness of relationships between pairs of network members. Uniformly, male Ss with more highly interconnected, cohesive sets of friends reported themselves to be less lonely, whereas density had little relation to loneliness in females. Results are discussed as possibly indicating that men and women use different standards in evaluating whether they are lonely. It is suggested that men may use more group-oriented criteria in evaluating loneliness, whereas women focus more on the qualities of dyadic relationships. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On going to the counselor: Contributions of life stress and social supports to the decision to seek psychological counseling.

Studied life stresses and social supports in 100 17–27 yr old college students to specify how these factors contributed to the decision of 50 Ss to seek psychological counseling. Life stress was measured with a life events checklist that yielded scores on the number and perceived impact of events. Social support was measured with a network size index that yielded scores on the number of potential and actual providers of support in each of 6 support categories. Results show that Ss who sought counseling reported no more negative events than their peers, but they reported greater impact of these events, fewer positive events, less family closeness, less frequent speaking to their parents, and more family history of seeking counseling. Ss who sought counseling reported having fewer available supports in 5 of the 6 categories of support. It is suggested that given equal numbers of stressful events, the likelihood of seeking counseling increases as social supports decrease. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-construal moderates age differences in social network characteristics.

In this study, the authors examined age differences in social network characteristics (SNC) among Hong Kong Chinese. The sample consisted of 596 Chinese adults, ranging from 18 to 91 years old. Age was positively associated with close social partners and negatively associated with peripheral social partners. For individuals who were more likely to define the self as interconnected with others (i.e., interdependent self-construal), increasing age was associated with a greater number of close social partners. The negative association between age and the number of peripheral social partners, well-documented in the Western literature, was found only among Chinese adults with lower interdependence but not among those with higher interdependence. These findings highlight the importance of examining the underlying mechanism rather than a particular pattern of SNC across cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social ties: Subgroup differences in costs and benefits.

Studied social support in response to stressful life events (i.e., whether social ties are stressful as well as supportive and whether there are subgroup differences in the efficacy of social support) among 314 women (mean age 34.7 yrs) with a mean educational level of 10.7 yrs and a mean family income of $7,500–20,000/yr. Ss completed measures of negative affect, perceived stressfulness of life events of significant others, and social support. Selected findings show that (1) the mobilization of social support was associated with better psychological well-being for Ss with greater personal resources; (2) Ss with lower levels of personal resources were more distressed by life events in the lives of their significant others, especially as the number of these events increased; and (3) subgroup effects of interpersonal support and stress on psychological well-being were independent and separate. It is concluded that Ss with greater material and psychological resources derived more beneficial support and suffered less stress from their social ties. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A comparative analysis.

Conducted a comparative analysis of the social-support systems of 45 Vietnam-era veterans (mean age 36.69 yrs), including 15 Ss in a program designed to evaluate and treat combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 15 well-adjusted Ss with no symptoms of PTSD, and 15 medical-service inpatients without combat exposure or PTSD. Retrospective reports of social support were obtained from each group for 3 life periods: 1–3 mo prior to entering the service, 1–3 mo following discharge from the service, and at the present time. Indexes of social support included social network size, material support, physical support, sharing, advice, and positive social interactions. Prior to Vietnam, all 3 groups reported comparable levels of support across all dimensions. For PTSD Ss, qualitative and quantitative measures of social support systematically declined over time to low levels at the present time period. For the remaining Ss, the social support was either stable or improved over time. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infants' sensitivity to relative size information for distance.

In Exp I, 40 203–231 day old infants were used to test the hypothesis that sensitivity to pictorial depth information emerges between 5 and 7 mo of age. Pairs of discs and triangles (identical except in size) were presented to Ss to test their reaching preference or lack of it under either monocular or binocular conditions. In Exp II, 20 157–270 day old and 40 140–256 day old infants were tested with the same apparatus and procedures but were moved closer to the objects. Results show that Ss in both experiments were sensitive to relative size. Under monocular viewing conditions, both 203–231 and 157–270 days old Ss showed a preference to reach for the larger object of the pair. Under binocular viewing conditions, no difference in number of reaches for the large and small objects was found in either group. The lack of reaching preference in the binocular condition suggests that the reaching preference observed in the monocular condition was due to the perceived spatial locations of the objects and not to a preference to reach for the larger object without regard to distance. Ss in the youngest age group (140–256 days old) gave no evidence of sensitivity to relative size. Findings support the hypothesis. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social nesting: Changes in social network and support across the transition to parenthood in couples that conceived spontaneously or through assisted reproductive technologies.

Research showed that following the birth of a first child, parents increase contact with family members and diminish contact with friends, however, these changes may differ when conception is achieved through assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Based on the convoy model (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980) perspective of close relationships, we examined changes across the transition to parenthood in the social networks and support of men and women that conceived spontaneously or through ART. Thirty one women and 22 men (22 couples) that conceived through ART and 28 women and 24 men (24 couples) with a spontaneous conception provided data on social network and support from nuclear family, extended family, and friends twice: at 24-weeks pregnancy and 4-months postpartum. Results demonstrated that, regardless of method of conception, during the transition to parenthood new parents showed a strong nesting movement towards their nuclear family, perceiving increasing levels of nuclear family support across time. Extended family seemed to have only a secondary role on the social nesting movement and a withdrawal from friends was also observed. Considering the primary role nuclear family members seem to have on providing effective support to child-rearing, a greater emphasis on the importance of parents’ relationship with their own parents and siblings could be made and social and working policies that prevent the displacement of families geographically also should be considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational competence, relationships, and adjustment in old age.

Investigated how the implications of relational competence and satisfying personal relationships for adjustment differ among young-old (60–72 yrs) and old-old (73–94 yrs) adults. Four studies with 377 young-old and old-old adults were conducted to test the hypothesis that among old-old Ss, adjustment and psychological well-being would be less predictable from personality (relational competence) variables or from satisfactory social involvements. Results indicate that for the young-old Ss, relational competence, social involvement, and satisfaction with social support relationships were associated positively with morale, self-esteem, and adjustment to widowhood. This pattern was not found among the old-old Ss. Findings are consistent with the (role-theoretical) view that personality characteristics assume meaning only when they have interpersonal consequences, and with the notion that the very old often experience a less prescribed and less evaluative social environment, with fewer social opportunities or role functions. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of the child's concept of the family.

60 kindergartners and 2nd and 4th graders, and 20 university students were questioned concerning their ideas about the structure of the family. Information was gathered on which persons children consider to be members of their own families, how a typical family is conceptualized, and what criteria are used in judging whether a grouping of people represents a family. In considering their own families and in constructing typical families, no age differences were found. A nuclear family grouping was most salient in both cases, and all Ss constructed similar typical families that consisted of 2 parents and their children. Major age-related differences were apparent in the criteria adopted for classifying groupings as instances of a family. Living together, contact between members, the presence of children, single parenthood, blood or legal relationship, and same-sex vs cross-sex partners were variables that were of differing importance as criteria for the respondents in the 4 age groups. Basically, the youngest Ss relied on common residence and contact between members as the criteria for evaluating families, whereas, with increasing age, emphasis was placed on blood or legal relationship. Continuities and discontinuities in the development of the concept of the family, comparisons with the development of other concepts, and implications for the child's understanding of the process of divorce or separation are discussed. (French abstract) (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping profiles associated with psychiatric, physical health, work, and family problems.

Examined coping profiles of 11 samples (identified in the stress literature) with a total of 1,298 individuals experiencing psychiatric, physical health, work, or family problems. Comparisons were made in Ss with and without anxiety and depression to control for the effects of distress. Coping was similar for Ss in similar problem categories, but different for Ss in different categories. Psychiatric Ss made more use of avoidance and less use of social supports. Ss with physical health problems were among the most frequent users of social supports. Ss with a family problem were among the most frequent users of problem-focused coping and the least frequent users of self-blame. Ss with work stress were the most frequent users of self-blame. Results support the hypothesis that persons with psychopathology cope in maladaptive ways involving dysfunctional strategies that constitute the behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health status, social networks and support systems of so called old old in a population-based comparative study of residents ages 69-74 and 75-80

To analyze the different features of health status, social support and networks of elderly people by age groups, a survey was performed of the social environment and health related issues among residents aged 69-74 and 75-80, the so called old-old, in Takasu, a small farming town in Hokkaido. The results were as follows: 1. The percentage of elderly having some of the symptoms related to dementia, lower scores of ADL, and poorer conditions of eye sight or hearing were significantly higher among the elderly aged 75-80 compared to those aged 69-74. The prevalence of diseases, such as senile cataracts in both sexes, and heart diseases in men were also higher among those aged 75 and over. 2. Although there were no differences in the mean number of hospital admissions or in the percentage of those having been sick in bed for more than 1 week during the previous one year, both the mean number of out-patient visits and percentage having a family physician were significantly higher in the elderly over 75 than under. Deterioration of IADL were prominent in the item on being able to go far away by themselves. 3. Almost 70% of the elderly participated in community-based social activities in Takasu. There were only small differences in social support and network among the different categories of family structure of the elderly. However women over 75 had statistically significantly lower number of the social supports compared to the younger age groups. A significantly smaller percentage of people was able to obtain the emotional or care support from their spouse for in elderly over 75 than for elderly under 75. 4. The results of this study suggest the need to provide more social support and networks for the old-old over 75 years old who tend to have more diseases and to be in poorer health condition, both physically or mentally than younger old.     

Social-environmental factors in unipolar depression: Comparisons of depressed patients and nondepressed controls.

Examined the role of stress and coping factors in depression by comparing a group of 409 Ss (over age 18) entering psychiatric treatment for unipolar depression with a sociodemographically matched group of 409 nondepressed Ss. In addition to reporting significantly more stressful events than controls, depressed Ss also experienced more severe life strains associated with their own and their family members' physical illness, their family relationships, and their home and work situations. Depressed Ss were less likely to use problem-solving and more likely to use emotion-focused coping responses and had fewer and less supportive relationships with friends, family members, and co-workers. These group differences were consistent for both depressed women and men. Findings indicate the value of expanding the consideration of psychosocial factors in depression to include individuals' chronic strains and acute stressors as well as their coping responses and social resources. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expressed emotion, social skill, and response to negative affect in schizophrenia.

Examined social skills and social perception of 48 schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder patients (aged 18–55 yrs) in response to negative affect as a function of family expressed emotion (EE). Ss participated in a role-play test, a social perception test, and a problem-solving discussion with a family member and were assessed on several measures of symptomatology. EE of family members was evaluated with the Camberwell Family Interview. On the role-play test, Ss with less critical relatives became more assertive in response to increased negative affect from a confederate portraying either a family member or friend, but Ss with highly critical relatives did not. Ss with highly critical relatives were also less assertive when confronted with negative affect from a confederate portraying a family member rather than a friend. The behaviors of both relatives and Ss during a family problem-solving interaction were related to the EE dimensions of criticism, emotional overinvolvement, and warmth. Patient gender was also related to family problem solving but was independent of EE. S's ratings of affect on a videotaped social perception task were not related to family EE, and there were few differences in psychopathology between Ss with high and low EE relatives.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociometric status and adjustment of hospitalized disturbed children.

Investigated the relationship between the social status and adjustment of 38 7-16 yr. old psychiatric inpatients. Sociometric information was obtained by comparing the friendship choices of each S, and adjustment was measured by staff ratings and S's length of stay in the hospital. No relationship was found between sociometric status and Ss' age, IQ, diagnosis, or popularity with staff members. There was a tendency, however, for long-term Ss to have fewer friends than short-term Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life satisfaction in old age: Linking social psychology and history.

A life course perspective on aging assumes that adaptation is governed by factors beyond the immediate situation. Longitudinal data on 79 women from the 1900 generation of the Berkeley Guidance Study (J. Macfarlane, 1938) were used to examine how social and psychological factors interact over time in the course of successful aging, as expressed by life satisfaction. The consequences of adaptive resources in early adulthood varied in relation to social class. Intellectual skills in 1930 indirectly predicted life satisfaction in old age for Ss from the working class, whereas emotional health is more influential in the life satisfaction of Ss with higher class origins. Social activity in old age made a difference only in the lives of Ss from the working class. Finally, adaptation to old age was related to Ss' experiences with past stressful events. Middle-class Ss in 1930 showed gains attributable to Depression hardship, whereas the life satisfaction of Ss from the working class was diminished by such hardships. Several mechanisms are discussed that may link widely separated problem situations and life events across the life course. Results support the proposition that the influence of social change on life trajectories is contingent on what individuals bring to change situations. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)