Instability of infant–parent attachment security.

Data from 2 separate projects were examined to address the stability of infant–parent attachment security. Both included infant–mother attachment classifications at 12 and 18 mo of age (n?=?125, n?=?90), and 1 included infant–father classifications at 13 and 20 mo (n?=?120). Significant stability was not discerned in attachment security, either at the level of ABC or secure–insecure classifications. Rates of stability ranged from 46–55%. Results are discussed in terms of the select nature of the samples studied (all sons in 1, some depressed mothers in the other), the fact that past estimates of stability are based on small samples, the potential influence that coding for disorganized behavior may have on how Strange Situations are classified, and the changing ecology of infancy over the past 10–15 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' representations of their relationships with their toddlers: Links to adult attachment and observed mothering.

Mothers (N?=?125) and their firstborn sons were studied over an 11-month period to examine relations between mothers' representations of their relationships with their children (measured at 15 months by using the Parent Development Interview [PDI]), adult representations of attachment (measured at 12 months by using the Adult Attachment Interview [AAI]), and observed mothering (measured at 15 and 21 months). Results indicate (a) that mothers classified as autonomous on the AAI scored highest on the joy-pleasure/coherence dimension of the PDI and mothers classified as dismissing on the AAI scored highest on the anger dimension of the PDI and (b) that mothers scoring higher on the joy-pleasure/coherence dimension of the PDI engaged in less negative and more positive mothering. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's internal representations, empathy and fantasy play: A validity study of the SCORS-Q.

The authors investigated relationships among internal representations, empathy, and affective and cognitive processes in fantasy play to test the validity of the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale Q-Sort (SCORS--Q; D. Westen, 1995) with children. Eighty-six 8--10-year-olds were administered 8 Thematic Apperception Test cards, a standardized play task, and a self-report empathy measure. Teachers rated children's empathy and helpfulness. As predicted, internal representations were related to empathy, helpfulness, and quality of fantasy play. Developmental differences on the SCORS--Q were consistent with object relations theory and with results from the original SCORS. The findings support the value of internal representations as a means of understanding children's interpersonal functioning and contribute to the validity of the SCORS--Q for use with children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal attachment representations, maternal sensitivity, and the infant–mother attachment relationship.

The role of maternal sensitivity as a mediator accounting for the robust association between maternal attachment representations and the quality of the infant-mother attachment relationship was examined. Sixty mother-infant dyads were observed at home and in the Strange Situation at 13 months, and mothers participated in the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) within the next 6 months. A strong association was found between AAI and Strange Situation classifications. and autonomous mothers were more sensitive at home than were nonautonomous mothers. Mothers in secure relationships were more sensitive at home than mothers in nonsecure relationships. Likewise, infants in secure relationships were more secure as assessed by the Waters' Attachment Q sort than infants in nonsecure relationships. A test of the mediational model revealed that maternal sensitivity accounted for 17% of the relation between AAI and Strange Situation classifications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The study of human infant attachment: A procedural critique.

Notes that the validation of psychological constructs often includes the intercorrelation of individual differences in the various behaviors that have been defined as indexes of a construct. Contemporary research on human infant attachment has often employed this mode of data analysis. The data from major studies are reviewed and evaluated in terms of the reliability of significant results and the extent to which correlations reveal temporal stability (reliability), cross-situational consistency, and convergent validity (cross-behavioral consistency) of attachment behaviors. It is shown that correlations which are significant in 1 sample often fail to reach significance in an independent sample and that the temporal stability, cross-situational consistency, and cross-behavioral consistency of attachment behaviors are not great. An alternative procedure for the validation of psychological constructs is suggested which involves the analysis of commonality in the proportions of children who display specific behavior patterns in designated situations and who show increases or decreases in the frequencies or intensities of such behaviors across a sequence of situations. The implications of this analytic procedure for the validation of psychological constructs other than attachment are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview.

About a decade ago, the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; C. George, N. Kaplan, & M. Main, 1985) was developed to explore parents' mental representations of attachment as manifested in language during discourse of childhood experiences. The AAI was intended to predict the quality of the infant-parent attachment relationship, as observed in the Ainsworth Strange Situation, and to predict parents' responsiveness to their infants' attachment signals. The current meta-analysis examined the available evidence with respect to these predictive validity issues. In regard to the 1st issue, the 18 available samples (N?=?854) showed a combined effect size of 1.06 in the expected direction for the secure vs. insecure split. For a portion of the studies, the percentage of correspondence between parents' mental representation of attachment and infants' attachment security could be computed (the resulting percentage was 75%; κ?=?.49, n?=?661). Concerning the 2nd issue, the 10 samples (N?=?389) that were retrieved showed a combined effect size of .72 in the expected direction. According to conventional criteria, the effect sizes are large.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent, infant, and social-contextual antecedents of father-son attachment security.

To examine antecedents of infant–father attachment security, 126 fathers and their sons were seen in the Strange Situation. Questionnaire measurements obtained 3 mo earlier of constructs implicated by J. Belsky's (1984) model of the determinants of parenting were examined as correlates of attachment classifications (i.e., father personality, infant temperament, marital quality, social support, work–family relations). Fathers of secure infants were more extroverted and agreeable than fathers of insecure infants, tended to have more positive marriages, and experienced more positive emotional spillover between work and family. Infants classified as insecure–avoidant received more positive temperament ratings than insecure–resistant sons. Overall, the more infant, parent, and social-contextual assets the family had, the greater the probability of a secure attachment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A behavior-genetic study of parenting quality, infant attachment security, and their covariation in a nationally representative sample.

A number of relatively small-sample, genetically sensitive studies of infant attachment security have been published in the past several years that challenge the view that all psychological phenotypes are heritable and that environmental influences on child development--to the extent that they can be detected--serve to make siblings dissimilar. Using the twin subsample (N = 485 same-sex pairs) of the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Birth Cohort, the authors provide evidence that parenting quality and infant attachment security observed at 24 months, as well as their covariation, are a product of shared and nonshared environmental (but not genetic) variation among children. In contrast, genetic differences between infants played a prominent role in explaining observations of temperamental dependency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In search of shared and nonshared environmental factors in security of attachment: A behavior-genetic study of the association between sensitivity and attachment security.

The current article presents results from a twin study of genetic and environmental components of maternal sensitivity and infant attachment and their association. The sample consisted of 136 twin pairs from 2 sites: Leiden, the Netherlands, and London, UK. Maternal sensitivity was assessed in the home at 9-10 months, and infant attachment security was observed in the laboratory at 12 months. The study yielded little evidence that genetic factors are involved in variations between twins in maternal sensitivity ratings but did find that shared variance in maternal sensitivity was able to account for some of the similarity between twins in attachment security. Weak nonshared associations between sensitivity and attachment appeared to suppress the magnitude of the correlation between attachment and sensitivity in twin children. The results could indicate that the attachment security of one twin may depend on the relationship the parent has with the other twin. The results are brought to bear on the validity of attachment theory as a theory of primarily shared environmental effects in children's development and the continuing challenge posed to attachment theory by within-family differences in socioemotional processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The affective component of the secure base schema: Affective priming with representations of attachment security.

Using an affective priming procedure (S. T. Murphy & R. B. Zajonc, 1993), 7 studies examined the effects of the contextual activation of representations of attachment security (secure base schema) on the evaluation of neutral stimuli under either neutral or stressful contexts. In all the studies, participants also reported on their attachment style. Results indicated that the subliminal priming of secure base representations led to more positive affective reactions to neutral stimuli than did the subliminal priming of neutral or no pictures under both neutral and stressful contexts. Although the subliminal priming of positively valued, attachment-unrelated representations heightened positive evaluations under neutral contexts, it failed to elicit positive affect under stressful contexts. The results also revealed interesting effects of attachment style. The discussion focuses on the affective component of the secure base schema. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress as predictors of infant-mother attachment security.

In considering Bowlby's (1969/1982) conceptualization of attachment as a "biobehavioral safety-regulating system," Goldberg, Grusec, & Jenkins (1999) proposed that maternal sensitivity to infant distress may be particularly relevant to the formation of a secure attachment relationship. Data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care provided a unique opportunity to address this question as maternal sensitivity to nondistress and distress were each coded for 357 mother-infant dyads at 6 months and 230 dyads at 15 months from videotaped observations of mother-infant play sessions. Attachment security was assessed in the Strange Situation at 15 months. Logistic regression analyses indicated that greater sensitivity to distress (but not greater sensitivity to nondistress) at 6 months was associated with increased odds of being classified as secure. The 15-month sensitivity measures were nonsignificant predictors of security. The results support the notion that the protective function of the child-mother attachment relationship may be especially salient during early infancy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specific sexual fantasy themes: A multidimensional study.

A multidimensional study with 138 female and 125 male undergraduates questioned the implicit assumption that sexual fantasies are unidimensional, hypothesizing that total sexual fantasy frequency is a composite of independent fantasy themes. Using factor analysis, 4 sets of fantasy themes were identified for both males and females who were also administered the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, a sibling incest aversion scale, and sexual fantasy and behavior scales. Ss' specific fantasy themes and total fantasy scores were submitted to discriminant analyses. The 4 factors of the female fantasy themes were Romance, Variety, Suffering, and Dominance. The 4 factors of the male fantasy themes were Force, Same Sex, Unpopular, and Macho. In none of these analyses were the discriminating variables for the high vs low total fantasy scores the same as those for the specific fantasy theme scores. The existence of 4 independent male and female fantasy factors, each associated with differing personality and sexual patterns, supports the contention that sexual fantasies are multidimensional. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal and infant temperamental predictors of attachment: A meta-analytic review.

Because of the possible implications of infant–mother attachment for later adjustment, we examined the extent to which it could be predicted by mother interactional variables and infant proneness to distress. The meta-analysis demonstrated that sensitive, responsive maternal interaction predicted the security of attachment in Ainsworth and Wittig's (1969) "strange situation." However, the strength of the relation was less than many narrative reviews have suggested. Proneness to distress, which is conceptualized as a temperamental variable, predicted resistance, which is a behavioral pattern in the strange situation that is thought to indicate one variety of insecure attachment. The strength of this association was low but was roughly comparable to that in the maternal domain. In both the maternal and infant domains, we attempted to predict the effect sizes by study characteristics such as method of assessment, sample composition, and age of subjects at the time of study. The pattern of results highlights several continuing methodological problems in the field and suggests that additional explanatory concepts are needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Rorschach object representations: Findings for a nonclinical sample.

Data are presented on the Mutuality of Autonomy (MOA) Scale for 40 preadolescent, normal Ss (21 girls, 19 boys). Ss gave modal responses indicative of benign interaction; counterbalanced maladaptive scores with adaptive representations in 90% of the cases; and avoided toxic, malevolent responses. This pattern lends further criterion validity to a measure increasingly used with psychiatric populations. Age and IQ were not significantly correlated with MOA scores. Pronounced gender differences were found, with girls producing significantly more adaptive and less malevolent MOA scores. A more detailed assessment of gender differences in object representational paradigms appears warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability of attachment representations: The transition to marriage.

This study examined the stability of adult attachment representations across the transition to marriage. One hundred fifty-seven couples were assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; C. George, N. Kaplan, & M. Main, 1985), the Current Relationship Interview (J. A. Crowell & G. Owens, 1996), and measures describing relationship functioning and life events 3 months prior to their weddings and 18 months into their marriages. The authors tested the hypotheses that attachment classifications are stable and that change is related to experiences in the relationship and/or life events; 78% of the sample received the same primary AAI classification (secure, preoccupied, and dismissing) at both times. Change was toward increased security and was associated with feelings and cognitions about the relationship. Only 46% of participants initially classified as unresolved retained the classification. Stability of the unresolved classification was associated with stressful life events and relationship aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' teaching strategies and children's effortful control: A longitudinal study.

Findings on the relation of maternal verbal teaching strategies to children's effortful control (EC; i.e., self-regulation) are limited in quantity and somewhat inconsistent. In this study, children's EC was assessed at 18, 30, and 42 months (ns = 255, 229, and 209, respectively) with adults' reports and a behavioral measure. Mothers' verbal teaching strategies were assessed while the mother and child worked on a task together. Children's general vocabulary also was measured. In a structural panel model taking into account prior levels of constructs and correlations within time, as well as the relations of EC and teaching strategies to children's vocabulary, socioeconomic status, age, and sex of the child, 18-month EC positively predicted mothers' 30-month cognitive assistance and questioning strategies and negatively predicted 30-month maternal directive strategies. In addition, high 30-month EC predicted greater 42-month maternal cognitive assistance and fewer directive strategies. Thus, mothers' teaching strategies were predicted by individual differences in self-regulatory skills, supporting potential evocative child effects on mothers' teaching strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rorschach water percepts: A study in conflicting results.

The hypothesis that the Rorschach protocols of alcoholics are "frequently overladen with percepts of water" is considered. Early research support of the hypothesis by the author was questioned by later research. Further research data are interpreted as supporting the hypothesis. "As the situation now rests, alcoholics perceive more water in Kentucky; in Massachusetts and in Washington they do not." From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2JK07G. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of infant social referencing: Mothers' messages and gender differences.

Examined infant social referencing by observing how 37 12-mo-old infants sought and used maternal messages concerning the affective significance of novel objects during 4 conditions that varied the content (happiness or fear) and presentation mode (unconstrained or trained facial expression) of maternal messages. Findings indicated that mothers, when permitted, supplemented facial expressions with verbal messages that refer both directly and indirectly to the object. Even so, their messages of fear lacked clarity and intensity, especially when directed toward daughters. Infants were able social referencers who often sought and used maternal appraisals even after they had reacted to an object. Maternal messages regulated daughters' but not sons' distance from the objects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)