Speed and intelligence in old age.

Past research suggests that age differences in measures of cognitive speed contribute to differences in intellectual functioning between young and old adults. To investigate whether speed also predicts age-related differences in intellectual performance beyond age 70 yrs, tests indicating 5 intellectual abilities (speed, reasoning, memory, knowledge, and fluency) were administered to a close-to-representative, age-stratified sample of old and very old adults. Age trends of all 5 abilities were well described by a negative linear function. The speed-mediated effect of age fully explained the relationship between age and both the common and the specific variance of the other 4 abilities. Results offer strong support for the speed hypothesis of old age cognitive decline but need to be qualified by further research on the reasons underlying age differences in measures of speed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday activity patterns and sensory functioning in old age.

In the present study the authors investigated the relationship between visual and auditory acuity and everyday activity functioning. Participants were 516 older adults (70–103 years; equal numbers of men and women) who were members of the age-stratified Berlin Aging Study. Two categories of everyday activity functioning, perceived competence with basic activities of daily living (BaCo; basic competence) and amount of participation in discretionary social and leisure tasks (ExCo; expanded competence), were examined. The results revealed that sensory acuity, particularly vision, was a significant predictor of both BaCo and ExCo (rs ranging from .32 to .47). Indeed, hearing and vision could explain most of the age-related variance in everyday activities. At the same time, in the context of a broader model, evidence for the differential prediction of BaCo and ExCo was found, although there was also evidence for strong general age-related predictive variance that was common to both measures. Discussion focuses on the role of sensory acuity constructs as mediators of age-related variance in psychological and behavioral outcomes and the potential causal implications of this mediation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intellectual functioning in old and very old age: Cross-sectional results from the Berlin Aging Study.

This study documents age trends, interrelations, and correlates of intellectual abilities in old and very old age (70–103 years) from the Berlin Aging Study (N?=?516). Fourteen tests were used to assess 5 abilities: reasoning, memory, and perceptual speed from the mechanic (broad fluid) domain and knowledge and fluency from the pragmatic (broad crystallized) domain. Intellectual abilities had negative linear age relations, with more pronounced age reductions in mechanic than in pragmatic abilities. Interrelations among intellectual abilities were highly positive and did not follow the mechanic-pragmatic distinction. Sociobiographical indicators were less closely linked to intellectual functioning than sensory-sensorimotor variables, which predicted 59% of the total reliable variance in general intelligence. Results suggest that aging-induced biological factors are a prominent source of individual differences in intelligence in old and very old age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The strong connection between sensory and cognitive performance in old age: Not due to sensory acuity reductions operating during cognitive assessment.

Cognitive aging research has documented a strong increase in the covariation between sensory and cognitive functioning with advancing age. In part, this finding may reflect sensory acuity reductions operating during cognitive assessment. To examine this possibility, the authors administered cognitive tasks used in prior studies (e.g., Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994) to middle-aged adults under age-simulation conditions of reduced visual acuity, auditory acuity, or both. Visual acuity was lowered through partial occlusion filters, and auditory acuity through headphone-shaped noise protectors. Acuity manipulations reduced visual acuity and auditory acuity in the speech range to values reaching or approximating old-age acuity levels, respectively, but did not lower cognitive performance relative to control conditions. Results speak against assessment-related sensory acuity accounts of the age-related increase in the connection between sensory and cognitive functioning and underscore the need to explore alternative explanations, including a focus on general aspects of brain aging. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integration versus differentiation of fluid/crytallized intelligence in old age.

Used an intra-age simulation approach to evaluate several models of psychometric intelligence differing primarily along the developmental continuum of differentiation–integration for older adults. 109 adults (aged 60–89 yrs) were administered a battery of 17 ability tests selected to mark R. B. Catell's (1971) and J. L. Horn's (1970, 1978) fluid (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) and speed dimensions. Using the Gf/Gc model of intelligence and intermediate outcomes as guidelines, structural models with between 7 and 1 factors were successively evaluated by confirmatory factor analysis. Three main findings emerged. First, models with fewer factors provided better fits to the data. Second, a model with a general factor and 3 group factors was especially acceptable based on empirical and theoretical criteria. Third, it was not possible to obtain an acceptable solution for the older Ss that would directly parallel the Gf/Gc structural pattern of 1st-stratum factors reported for younger age groups. In concert, the findings support a neointegration, or dedifferentiation, view of psychometric intelligence in old age. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the plasticity of intelligence in adulthood and old age: Where Horn and Donaldson fail.

Challenges the critique by J. L. Horn and G. Donaldson (see PA, Vol 57:Issue 4) of the K. W. Schaie and P. B. Baltes research and writings on intelligence in adulthood and old age, contending that it seriously misrepresents Schaie's and Baltes's theoretical positions and data interpretations. It is noted that Schaie and Baltes do not reject in toto the notion of intellectual decline; within the framework of a dialectical interpretation of intelligence in adulthood and old age, they emphasize plasticity as evidenced in large interindividual differences, multidimensionality, multidirectionality, modifiability, and the joint import of age- and cohort-related determinants. When arguing for the adequacy of a fluid-crystallized model of intelligence, Horn and Donaldson's critique conveniently de-emphasizes the empirical significance of cohort effects. Contrary to a process-oriented dialectical view, the critique (assuming fairly invariant and fixed change patterns) espouses a model of adult gerontological development which Schaie and Baltes judge to be anachronistic. It is concluded that Horn and Donaldson present a reactionary critique which, if taken too seriously, is likely to inhibit much-needed progress in the field of intelligence in adulthood and old age. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A respectable old age.

The author outlines events that led to his interest in aging. His involvement with older people has revealed that too little is known about the later stages of life and the problems with which older people must cope and too few methods of helping them cope with these problems are available. The absolute number of the over-65 yrs cohort and their percentage of the total population are increasing rapidly. This increase in their numbers will force a structural change in society so that the over-65 yrs cohort will be more integrated into the social structure and will participate more actively in all aspects of society. This change will generate a number of problems for psychologists to solve. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Profiles of psychological functioning in the old and oldest old.

Cluster analysis was applied to 12 measures of intellectual, personality, self-related, and social functioning collected in the 1st cross-sectional wave of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE; N?=?516). Central questions concerned the number, profile desirability (functional status), and membership of the subgroups obtained. Of the 9 subgroups extracted, 4 reflected different patterns of desirable functioning (47% of the sample), and 5 reflected less desirable functioning (53%). Relative risk of a less desirable profile was 2.5 times higher for the oldest old (85–103 years) than for people between the ages of 70–84 years and was 1.25 times higher for women compared with men. Relationships with education, health, and mortality suggested underlying systemic differences. Consistent with theoretical propositions about a "4th age" and the incomplete architecture of life span development (P. B. Baltes, 1997), the oldest old appear to have a distinct and less desirable psychological profile. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of gender in very old age: profiles of functioning and everyday life patterns

Older men and women have different life contexts as a function of differential longevity and socio-structural opportunities over the life course. The question is whether gender-related differences also occur in psychological and everyday functioning in older adults. Examined were 258 men and 258 women between the ages of 70 and 103 years (M = 85 years), participants in the Berlin Aging Study. Significant gender differences were observed in 13 of 28 aspects of personality, social relationships, everyday activity patterns, and reported well-being. Cluster analysis identified 11 subgroups whose profiles of life conditions and health and psychological functioning could be categorized as more or less desirable (functional). The relative risk of a less desirable profile was 1.6 times higher for women than for men. For older adults, gender as a variable carries differences in physical frailty and life conditions that likely have consequences for psychological functioning.     

Influences of thyroid stimulating hormone on cognitive functioning in very old age

This study investigated the relationship of thyroxine (T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) within normal ranges to cognitive performance in very old age. The participants (N = 200) were selected from a population-based study of nondemented persons aged 75 to 96 years (M = 83.9 years). Tasks assessing episodic memory, verbal fluency, visuospatial ability, short-term memory, and perceptual-motor speed were examined. Results indicated that T4 was unrelated to performance. However, TSH was positively related to episodic memory performance, and the effects were independent of the influence of age, level of education, and depressive mood symptoms. There was no reliable effect of TSH on verbal fluency, short-term memory, perceptual-motor speed, or visuospatial functioning. The influence of TSH on episodic memory was interpreted in terms of its potential effects on encoding and consolidation processes.     

Clustering in middle and old age.

Presented 2 different stimulus lists to 16 middle-aged (30-60 yrs old) and elderly (70-90 yrs old) Ss for free recall. One list was composed of word pairs that share complementary relationships (e.g., music and piano), and the other list was composed of pairs that share similarity relationships (e.g., king and ruler). An analysis of variance performed on the clustering scores indicated that age, list, and the Age * List interaction were significant sources of variance. The only condition in which a significant amount of clustering was obtained was that in which the middle-aged Ss were given the similarity list. There were no differences in the amount of clustering exhibited by the middle-aged when given the complementary list or the elderly when given either the complementary or the similarity list. Thus, it appears that there is a decline in the elderly in the organization of incoming information and that this decline in organization may be, at least in part, responsible for the memory decrement observed in the elderly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negro-white differences in intelligence test performance: A new look at an old problem.

Negro-white differences on mental tests are evaluated in this paper, which was prepared at the suggestion of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (Division 9 of the American Psychological Association). "The evidence against the assumption of native differences in intelligence test performance between Negroes and whites still seems to me to be very convincing." There is "no scientifically acceptable evidence for the view that ethnic groups differ in innate abilities. This is not the same as saying that there are no ethnic differences in such abilities… . The science of psychology can offer no support to those who see in the accident of inherited skin color or other physical characteristics any excuse for denying to individuals the right to full participation in American democracy." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the locus of training gains in research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence in old age.

Cognitive training research has shown that many older adults have a substantial reserve capacity in fluid intelligence. Little is known, however, about the locus of plasticity. Two studies were conducted to examine whether training gains in fluid abilities are critically dependent on experimenter-guided training and/or whether older adults can achieve similar improvements by themselves on the basis of cognitive skills already available in their repertoire. Several comparisons were made: (a) between test performances after trainer-guided training in ability-specific cognitive skills and after self-guided retest practice (without feedback), (b) between performances under speeded and power conditions of assessment, (c) between performances on easy and difficult items, and (d) between the relative numbers of correct and wrong answers. Results suggest that a large share of the training improvement shown by the elderly can plausibly be explained as the result of the activation and practice of cognitive skills already available in the repertoire. The results also have implications for educational practice, pointing to the appropriateness of strategies of self-directed learning for many elderly adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intellectual self-management in old age.

Asserts that old age is only partly a biological condition. Environments age as well as bodies, and fortunately that process can be retarded. The author records personal techniques that have proved helpful in offsetting some of the physiological limitations of old age and particularly in making it possible to continue to engage in intellectual work. Problems dealt with include sensory and motor deficiencies, memory loss, motivational changes, mental fatigue, and the disruptive effects of the social environment of the aged. Emphasis is on constructing a world in which the behavior of old people will continue to be abundantly reinforced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A systemic–wholistic view of psychological functioning in very old age: Introduction to a collection of articles from the Berlin Aging Study.

Introduced are articles from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) that collectively illustrate systemic–wholistic approaches to psychological functioning in old age. A systemic–wholistic perspective aims to elucidate structural and functional interdependencies between domains and to provide an integrative account of individual functioning. The special features of BASE (age range, 70–105 years; heterogeneous sample stratified by age and gender, and multidisciplinary data collection) are suited to this purpose. This article outlines the design of BASE. describes the cross-sectional sample (N?=?516: 258 men and 258 women), and reports sample selectivity analyses on 25 criterion variables in which the Pearson-Lawley selection formulas were used. Although the BASE sample is positively biased. it is not restricted in heterogeneity and does not exhibit major differences in patterns of covariation among variables. This finding supports the use of BASE data for the intended systemic–wholistic analyses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classification criteria in middle and old age.

In Exp I, 32 middle-aged and 32 elderly Ss were presented with the Conceptual Styles Test. A 2 * 2 (Age * Sex) analysis of variance on the percentage of complementary responses obtained on this test reveals that Age and the Age * Sex interaction were significant. The middle-aged men gave significantly fewer complementary responses than the other 3 groups. It is suggested that these results reflect sex differences in the course of cognitive development which may result from the differential experiences and life-styles of adult males and adult females. To investigate the effect of one of the most apparent differences between the experiences of middle-aged men and middle-aged women-occupation-the performance of 10 professional and 10 nonprofessional men and 10 professional and 10 nonprofessional women was compared in Exp II. A 2 * 2 (Sex * Type of Occupation) analysis of variance on the percentage of complementary responses given on the Conceptual Styles Test yielded only 1 significant effect. Nonprofessionals gave significantly more complementary responses than professionals. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence.

Three studies used J. D. Mayer and P. Salovey's (1997) theory of emotional intelligence (EI) as a framework to examine the role of emotional abilities (assessed with both self-report and performance measures) in social functioning. Self-ratings were assessed in ways that mapped onto the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), a validated performance measure of EI. In Study 1, self-ratings and MSCEIT scores were not strongly correlated. In Study 2, men's MSCEIT scores, but not self-ratings, correlated with perceived social competence after personality measures were held constant. In Study 3, only the MSCEIT predicted real-time social competence, again, just for men. Implications for analyzing how emotional abilities contribute to social behavior are discussed, as is the importance of incorporating gender into theoretical frameworks and study designs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of cognitive function in community-dwelling and institutionalized old people of normal intelligence.

30 people (aged 70–88 yrs) living in the community and 44 institutionalized people (aged 71–89 yrs) were administered a neuropsychological cognitive test battery. Screening procedures ensured that Ss were equivalent in terms of health, age, education, and socioeconomic status (SES). A comparison of groups on a cognitive index derived from the test battery yielded a significant difference even when IQ as derived from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was factored out. Of the 15 cognitive tests, 8 contributed to the group differences. All 8 tests are sensitive to medial-temporal lobe or frontal lobe damage. Results confirm earlier findings (e.g., G. Winocur et al; see record 1988-20729-001) that people who are functioning well in institutions may have significant cognitive impairment. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive training research on fluid intelligence in old age: What can older adults achieve by themselves?

Cognitive research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence has demonstrated that older adults benefit markedly from guided practice in cognitive skills and problem-solving strategies. We examined to what degree older adults are capable by themselves of achieving similar practice gains, focusing on the fluid ability of figural relations. A sample of 72 healthy older adults was assigned randomly to three conditions: control, tutor-guided training, self-guided training. Training time and training materials were held constant for the two training conditions. Posttraining performances were analyzed using a transfer of training paradigm in terms of three indicators: correct responses, accuracy, and level of time difficulty. The training programs were effective and produced a significant but narrow band of within-ability transfer. However, there was no difference between the two training groups. Older adults were shown to be capable of producing gains by themselves that were comparable to those obtained following tutor-guided training in the nature of test-relevant cognitive skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure of intelligence in children and adults with high functioning autism.

Confirmatory factor analyses of the commonly used 11 subtests of the Wechsler child and adult intelligence scales were accomplished for 137 children and 117 adults with high functioning autism (HFA) and for comparable age groups from the standardization samples contained in the Wechsler manuals. The objectives were to determine whether the structure of intelligence in HFA groups was similar to that found in the normative samples, and whether a separate "social context" factor would emerge that was unique to HFA. Four-factor models incorporating a Social Context factor provided the best fit in both the autism and normative samples, but the subtest intercorrelations were generally lower in the autism samples. Findings suggest similar organization of cognitive abilities in HFA, but with the possibility of underconnectivity or reduced communication among brain regions in autism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)