The active buckling control of laminated composite beams with embedded shape memory alloy wires

In this paper, the results of an experimental analysis on the active buckling control behaviour of a laminated composite beam with embedded shape memory alloy (SMA) wires are presented. For the purpose of enhancing the critical buckling load, active buckling control was investigated through the use of the reaction time associated with the shape recovery force of SMA wires. An increased critical buckling load and altered deflection shape due to the effects of activation of embedded SMA wires are represented qualitatively and quantitatively on the load–deflection behaviour records. The results obtained from this active buckling control test confirm that the buckling resistance in a composite beam with embedded SMA wires can be increased by the use of an activation force of the embedded SMA wires. Based on our experimental analysis, a new formula for the behaviour control of active buckling in a laminated composite beam with embedded SMA wires is also suggested.     

Thermal buckling and postbuckling analysis of a laminated composite beam with embedded SMA actuators

In this paper, the thermal buckling and postbuckling behaviours of a composite beam with embedded shape memory alloy (SMA) wires are investigated analytically. For the purpose of enhancing the critical buckling temperature and reducing the lateral deflection for the thermal buckling, the characteristics of thermal buckling are investigated through the use of the shape recovery force associated with SMA wire actuators. The results of both thermal buckling and postbuckling behaviours present quantitatively how the shape recovery force affects the thermal buckling behaviour. The analytical results show that the shape recovery force reduces the thermal expansion of the composite laminated beam, which results in both an increment of the critical buckling temperature and also a reduction of the lateral deflection of postbuckling behaviours. A new formula is also proposed to describe the critical buckling temperature of the laminated composite beam with embedded SMA wire actuators.     

Vibration characteristics of laminated composite plates with embedded shape memory alloys

Shape memory alloy (SMA) is commercially available for a variety of actuator and damping materials. Recently, SMA wires have also become commercially available for the design of smart composite structures because SMA wires with a small diameter can be easily produced. In this work, two types of SMA-based composites are presented for investigating the vibration characteristics. First, laminated composite plates containing unidirectional fine SMA wires are fabricated. By measuring the vibration mode of a clamped cantilever, the influence of both SMA arrangement and temperature on the vibration characteristics is made clear. Next, laminated composite plates with embedded woven SMA layer are fabricated. The stiffness tuning capability is evaluated by impact vibration tests with different temperatures. It is found that the stiffness tuning capability may be improved by increasing the volume fraction of SMAs and by controlling accurately the internal stress according to the phase transformation temperature of SMAs from martensite to austenite. The theoretical prediction on the natural frequency considering the SMAs behavior and laminated structures is proposed and their results agree reasonably with experimental ones.     

Design,manufacture and evaluation of bending behaviour of composite beams embedded with SMA wires

An experimental study has been conducted to design and fabricate smart composite beams embedded with prestrained nitinol wire actuators. The developed fabrication process allowed both quasi-isotropic E-glass/epoxy and carbon/epoxy hosts to be eccentrically embedded with 10 parallel prestrained wires with a purpose-made alignment device and cured successfully in an autoclave. Smart composite beams of three different lengths were made for each type of host. Both single-cycle and multi-cycle thermomechanical bending actuations of these beams in the cantilever set-up were characterised experimentally by applying various levels of electric current to the nitinol wires. The performance characteristics showed that the present fabrication process was repeatable and reliable. While the end deflections of up to 41 mm were easily achieved from smart E-glass/epoxy beams, the limited end deflections were observed from the smart carbon/epoxy beams due primarily to our inability to insulate the nitinol wires. Moreover, it seemed necessary to overheat the prestrained wires to much higher temperatures beyond the complete reverse transformation in order to generate recovery stress. The longer beams showed greater actuation rates and took less time to reach the same level of deflection. It was found that the actuation capability derived from single-cycle actuation exercises was not suited to multi-cycling actuations and could result in premature failure of multi-cycled smart beams.     

Thermo-mechanical behaviour of shape memory alloy reinforced composite laminate (Ni–Ti/glass-fibre/epoxy)

The thermo-mechanical behaviour of a shape memory alloy reinforced composite (SMARC) laminated plate (Ni–48.8Ti/Glass-fibre/Epoxy) was studied. A theoretical frame of the constitutive law was first proposed using irreversible thermodynamics. Expressions were derived in details in terms of some approximations based on meso-mechanics. Typical experiments, including uniaxial tension, restrained recovery, free recovery tests, etc., were carried out to determine the material coefficients. The results obtained include the constitutive relationship between stress and strain, the expression of entropy, and the dependence of the effective “elastic” coefficients on temperature.     

Finite element simulation of low velocity impact on shape memory alloy composite plates

Delamination of composite materials due to low velocity impacts is one of the major failure types of aerospace composite structures. The low velocity impact may not immediately induce any visible damage on the surface of structures whilst the stiffness and compressive strength of the structures can decrease dramatically.

Shape memory alloy (SMA) materials possess unique mechanical and thermal properties compared with conventional materials. Many studies have shown that shape memory alloy wires can absorb a lot of the energy during the impact due to their superelastic and hysteretic behaviour. The superelastic effect is due to reversible stress induced transformation from austenite to martensite. If a stress is applied to the alloy in the austenitic state, large deformation strains can be obtained and stress induced martensite is formed. Upon removal of the stress, the martensite reverts to its austenitic parent phase and the SMA undergoes a large hysteresis loop and a large recoverable strain is obtained. This large strain energy absorption capability can be used to improve the impact tolerance of composites. By embedding superelastic shape memory alloys into a composite structure, impact damage can be reduced quite significantly.

This article investigates the impact damage behaviour of carbon fiber/epoxy composite plates embedded with superelastic shape memory alloys wires. The results show that for low velocity impact, embedding SMA wires into composites increase the damage resistance of the composites when compared to conventional composites structures.     

TiNiCu形状记忆合金双向记忆效应研究

研究了热机械训练温度及定型处理温度对TiNiCu形状记忆合金弹簧双向记忆效应的影响。研究结果表明:在纯马氏体状态进行训练时,双向记忆恢复率随训练次数的增加而增加,并在一定的训练次数后达到饱和;在纯奥氏体状态进行训练,双向记忆恢复率随训练次数迅速增加到某一最大值后随训练次数的增加而减小;在马氏体和奥氏体混合相进行训练时,双向记忆恢复率随训练次数先增加而后减小。经过400～550℃×1h/AC定型处理及热机械训练后最大形状记忆恢复率随定型处理温度升高先增大然后减小。由于马氏体再取向时引入的位错有利于双向记忆效应,热诱发和应力诱发的马氏体变体数量不同,引起了在不同状态训练诱发的双向记忆效应随训练次数变化的差异。     

Material design and shape memory properties of smart composites composed of polymer and ferromagnetic shape memory alloy particles

Ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) such as NiMnGa are expected to be new practical actuator materials with high driving frequency by magnetic field and large strain due to the shape memory effect (SME). However, the brittleness and poor workability of FSMAs, especially at a polycrystalline state, are serious problems and should be improved for a practical use. From this viewpoint a smart composite has been designed by a combination of a polymer matrix and FSMA particles (FSMAP), and a systematic investigation has been done for a NiMnGa-FSMAP/epoxy smart composite. This paper summarizes the design concept and some experimental results of the smart composite. It is pointed out that the single-crystal NiMnGa-FSMAP are easily made by mechanical crush due to the brittleness of FSMAs, and microstructural control is also possible by applying magnetic field during curing. Experimental study revealed that the NiMnGa-FSMAP/epoxy smart composites exhibit both tensile ductility and SME, and that shape memory properties become improved by decreasing particle size of FSMAP. It is concluded that the FSMAP/polymer smart composite has a large potential to be a new practical actuator material.     

Thermomechanical behavior of Ti-Ni shape memory alloy films deposited by DC magnetron sputtering

In this study, thermomechanical properties of titanium-nickel (Ti-Ni) shape memory alloy (SMA) films are investigated in order to derive constitutive relations. Ti-Ni SMA films, deposited by DC magnetron sputtering under controlled film composition, are characterized by uniaxial tensile tests. At room temperature (R.T.), Ti-Ni films having Ti contents less than 50 at% exhibit superelastic behavior, and those having Ti contents greater than 50 at% exhibit shape memory behavior. However, the Ni—53.2 at% Ti film fractured at a tensile strain of 0.8% because of an increase in brittleness with increasing Ti content. At elevated temperatures, Ti-Ni films having Ti contents of 50.2 to 52.6 at% undergo phase change from martensite to austenite. The Young's modulus of the Ti-Ni films depends on temperature at each phase, regardless of film composition. Film composition does, however, affect the measured material constants b_A, b_M, c_A, and c_M. Stress-strain curves calculated from the constructed constitutive equation closely agree with those obtained from tensile tests, for both the martensite and austenite phases. The constitutive equations are expected to find great utility in the design of Ti-Ni film-actuated microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).     

Stiffness and vibration characteristics of SMA/ER3 composites with shape memory alloy short fibers

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) possess both sensing and actuating functions due to their shape memory effect, pseudo-elasticity, high damping capability and other remarkable characteristics. Combining the unique properties of SMAs with other materials can create intelligent or smart composites. In this paper, epoxy resin composites filled with Ni–Ti alloy short fibers were developed. Microstructure was observed using digital HF microscope. The dynamic mechanical properties were investigated by measuring the first vibration mode of clamped cantilever beams and by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Moreover, the natural frequency of SMA composites was predicted theoretically. As a result, the temperature dependency of vibration property and DMA characteristics is affected largely due to the addition of SMA short fibers. The vibrational characteristics of SMA composites can be improved by the addition of small amounts of SMA short fibers. The addition of 3.5 wt.% of SMA short fiber content to epoxy resin resulted in the maximum increment in both natural frequency and storage modulus. This suggested that there exists an optimum SMA fiber content for vibration characteristics.     

Nonlinear free vibration analysis of shape memory alloy embedded laminated composite shell panel

High specific strength and stiffness are characteristics desired for aircraft and launch vehicle domains to enhance the payload gain and performance. The mechanical properties of the composites can be further tailored by embedding structural components, such as shape memory alloys, into the passive composite structure. The present study is primarily focused on the nonlinear free vibration analysis of spherical and cylindrical composite shell panels embedded with shape memory alloy fibers. The nonlinear finite element governing equations based on the higher-order shear deformation plate theory and principle of virtual work with nonlinear von-Karman strain displacement relations are employed for the analysis. The temperature-dependent material properties of shape memory alloy are considered in the formulation. A nine-noded isoperimetric element is accounted for synthesizing the element for the finite formulation. The Young's modulus and the recovery stress vary with temperature and higher nonlinearity. The incremental method is used to generate the inputs for the temperature-dependent nonlinear properties of materials. The temperature change is divided by many small temperature increments. The temperature-dependent material properties are assumed constant during the small increment. The mechanics of shape memory alloy in substrate are presented and the governing equation of laminated composite with shape memory alloy is obtained and implemented in the MATLAB 7.8 program.     

A theoretical model for the bending of a laminated beam with SMA fiber embedded layer

A theoretical model for the bending of a laminated beam bonded with shape memory alloy (SMA) fiber reinforced layer is presented. The constitutive relations of the SMA layer are obtained by using the method of micromechanics. The bending of the laminated beam is then discussed, and the relationship between bending moment, curvature and temperature are provided. The governing relationships obtained in this paper can be used for theoretical predications of thermomechanical properties of beam-like SMA actuators.     

A study on the hot workability of wrought NiTi shape memory alloy

The hot workability of a wrought 49.8 Ni-50.2 Ti (at pct) alloy was assessed using the hot compression tests in temperature range of 700-1000 °C, strain rate of 0.001-1 s⁻¹, and the total strain of 0.7. The constitutive equations of Arrhenius-type hyperbolic-sine function was used to describe the flow stress as a function of strain rate and temperature. The preferable regions for hot workability of the alloy were achieved at Z (Zener-Holloman parameter) values of about 10⁹-10¹³ corresponding to the peak efficiency of 20-30% in the processing map. However, a narrow area in the processing map including the deformation temperature of 1000 °C and strain rate of 1 s⁻¹ is inconsistent with the related Z values. A flow instability region was observed at high Z values. Further instability regions were found at low temperature of 700 °C and low strain rates of 0.01-0.001 s⁻¹ as well as at high temperature of 1000 °C and high strain rate of 1 s⁻¹. The apparent feature of flow curves, the low value of peak efficiency, the similarity between the estimated apparent activation energy of deformation and that of the self diffusion of Ti in Ni, and the stress exponent of higher than 5, suggested that dynamic recovery (DRV) is the dominant restoration phenomenon during the hot working of the alloy.     

Effect of superelastic shape memory alloy wires on the impact behavior of carbon fiber reinforced in situ polymerized poly(butylene terephthalate) composites

Low-velocity impact properties of shape memory alloy (SMA) wires and carbon fiber reinforced poly(butylene terephthalate) obtained by resin transfer molding were characterized. At the subcritical regime the dissipated energy is not affected by the presence of the wires. However SMA has a positive effect on the maximum absorbed energy, since the maximum allowable load is higher. The contribution of the SMA wires to the higher impact performance of the hybrid composite is suggested to be due to their energy absorbing capability, and also to the high reversible force that acts as a healing force.     

Carbon nanotube forest growth on NiTi shape memory alloy thin films for thermal actuation

Actuation frequencies in thermally triggered Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) thin films are limited by the slow heat transport into/out of the films. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are known to exhibit an exceptionally high thermal conductivity. Thus, we propose to thermally contact SMA films with CNTs to increase SMA actuation frequencies by enhanced heat transport through the CNTs. The basic requirement for this envisaged nanotube application is to obtain CNT forest growth on a SMA material while retaining a reversible martensitic transformation, as required for Shape Memory Effect exploitation. We show how such growth can be achieved on thin films of the SMA material NiTi. Future work is needed to measure thermal properties and obtainable cycling frequencies of CNT-SMA structures.     

A study on thermomechanical deformation of elastic beam with embedded shape memory alloy wires

The bending deformation of an elastic beam with eccentrically embedded shape memory alloy (SMA) wires under the activation of electrical current has been investigated. A procedure, which accounts for the effect of transient heat transfer and gives rise to the beam bending responding to prescribed input electrical current profile is used for analysis. It is found that influences of ambient temperature, electric current intensity and prestrain of SMA on the bending deformation of beam are significant.     

Development and characterization of active nanocomposites with embedded shape memory alloy wires

Active nanocomposites of epoxy resin containing bentonite clay and shape memory alloy (SMA) were made to evaluate the thermomechanical behavior in the range of phase transformation of shape memory alloy during heating. The epoxy resin system studied was prepared using bifunctional diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA), crosslinking agent diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS), purified bentonite organoclay (APOC) and thin Ni‐Ti shape memory alloy wires. The evaluated ratio DGEBA/DDS was 100:40, for the epoxy resin/clay system was 100:1 and the shape memory alloy volumetric fraction of Ni‐Ti wires were 1.55%; 2.56%; 3.57% and 4.54%. The formation of nanocomposite was confirmed by X‐ray diffraction analysis. Phase transformation of the shape memory alloy wires were determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Specimens of the active nanocomposites were characterized mainly by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). According to the DMA results was evidenced a significant increase in glass transition temperature and storage modulus when 1 parts per hundred resin of clay is added to epoxy resin. A recover of storage modulus was observed in the active nanocomposite during heating in the range of the phase transformation of Ni‐Ti shape memory alloy wires when the volumetric fraction is above 3.5%.     

An analytical model for the vibration of a composite plate containing an embedded periodic shape memory alloy structure

This paper explores the integration of a periodic repeating arrangement of shape memory alloy (SMAs) within a composite plate, with a view to active control of the vibrations of the plate by means of a controllable activation strategy for the SMA elements. The benefits of this configuration are that ‘antagonistic’ operation of SMAs on the plate allows the significantly longer cooling time constant of previously activated elements to be shortened by means of active elements working against them during that phase. This concept dramatically shortens the cooling time constant and brings it into the same order of magnitude of the heating phase. The paper examines the mathematical modelling of such a plate, and offers an approximate analytical solution by means of a hybrid WKB–Galerkin method. The antagonistic operation of the system is represented mathematically by terms in which the stiffness and damping are both time dependent. Therefore the equation of motion contains terms with time variant coefficients and is impossible to solve without recourse to specialised methods. Comparisons with numerical methods are given and it is shown that good similarity can be obtained for judicious choice of practical values for the time variant stiffness and damping functions.     

Thermal post-buckling and flutter characteristics of composite plates embedded with shape memory alloy fibers

It is investigated that the composite plate embedded with shape memory alloy (SMA) fibers is subject to the aerodynamic and thermal loading in the supersonic region. The nonlinear finite element equations based on the first-order shear deformation plate theory (FSDT) are formulated for the laminated composite plate embedded with SMA fibers (SMA composite plate). The von Karman strain–displacement relation is used to account for the large deflection. The incremental method considering the influence of the initial deflections and initial stresses is adopted for the temperature-dependent material properties of SMA fibers and composite matrix. The first-order piston theory is used for modeling aerodynamic loads. This study shows the effect of the SMA on the critical temperature, thermal post-buckling deflection, natural frequency and critical dynamic pressure of the SMA composite plate.