Effects of organoclay platelets on morphology and mechanical properties in PTT/EPDM-g-MA/organoclay ternary nanocomposites

The addition of up to 6 part per hundred (phr) of an organoclay to a 80/20 (w/w) PTT/EPDM-g-MA blend led to ternary compounds that came together as a means of balancing stiffness/strength versus toughness/ductility. The effect of organoclay platelets on morphologies and mechanical properties of PTT/EPDM-g-MA/organoclay ternary nanocomposites had been studied by SEM, TEM, WAXD, and mechanical testing. For the 80/20 (w/w) blend, the clay platelets are located inside the dispersed domains of EPDM-g-MA phase. The clay platelets do not act effectively as a barrier for the coalescence of the dispersed domains. The complex viscosities (η^∗) of the 80/20 (w/w) PTT/EPDM-g-MA blend increased with the amount of the organoclay increasing, which are proposed as the reason for the dispersed domain size (D) that becomes smaller at higher clay content. Mechanical tests show that the Young's modulus increases, whereas the tensile strength and the impact strength decrease when the content of the clay increases.     

Compatibilizing effect of maleated polypropylene on the mechanical properties and morphology of injection molded polyamide 6/polypropylene/organoclay nanocomposites

Polyamide 6/polypropylene (PA6/PP=70/30 parts) blends containing 4 phr (parts per hundred resin) of organophilic modified montmorillonite (organoclay) were prepared using twin screw extruder followed by injection molding. Maleated polypropylene (MAH-g-PP) was used to compatibilize the blend system. The mechanical properties of PA6/PP nanocomposites were studied through tensile and flexural tests. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to assess the fracture surface morphology and the dispersion of the organoclay, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to characterize the formation of nanocomposites. The thermal properties were characterized by using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The dynamic mechanical properties of PA6/PP nanocomposites were analyzed by using dynamic mechanical thermal analyzer (DMTA). The strength and stiffness of PA6/PP nanocomposites were improved significantly in the presence of MAH-g-PP. This has been attributed to the synergistic effect of organoclay and MAH-g-PP. The MAH-g-PP compatibilized PA6/PP nanocomposites showed a homogeneous morphology supporting the compatibility improvement between PA6, PP and organoclay. TEM and XRD results revealed the formation of nanocomposites as the organoclay was intercalated and exfoliated. A possible chemical interaction between PA6, PP, organophilic modified montmorillonite and MAH-g-PP was proposed based on the experimental work.     

The effect of clay on the thermal degradation of polyamide 6 in polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites

The degradation pathway of polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites was studied as a function of clay content. Well-dispersed polymer-clay nanocomposites can be easily obtained by simple melt blending between organically-modified clays and polyamide 6. Polyamide 6-clay nanocomposites exhibit a large reduction in the peak heat release rate, 60%, measured by cone calorimetry. There are no significant differences in the evolved products during thermal degradation of polyamide 6 and polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites in terms of composition and functionality. The main degradation pathway of polyamide 6 is aminolysis and/or acidolysis, primarily through an intra-chain reaction, producing ε-carprolactam, which is the monomer of polyamide 6. As the clay loading is increased, the relative quantity of ε-carprolactam in the evolved products decreases and the viscosity of the soluble solid residues increases. It is thought that inter-chain reactions become significant in the presence of clay because the degrading polymer chains are trapped in the gallery space of the clay during thermal degradation.     

Investigation on the polyamide 6/organoclay nanocomposites with or without a maleated polyolefin elastomer as a toughener

Polyamide 6 (PA 6)-based nanocomposites were prepared using a melt-mixing technique in this study. One commercial organoclay (denoted 30B) and one maleated polyolefin elastomer (denoted POEMA) served as the reinforcing filler and toughener, respectively. The X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results confirmed the nano-scaled dispersion of 30B in the composites. Different mixing sequences presented similar phase morphology for the same formulated nanocomposites. XRD results also revealed that both 30B and POEMA would induce the formation of γ form PA 6 crystal, with 30B exhibiting a higher efficiency. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results indicated that the addition of 30B altered the crystallization kinetics of PA 6, which was mainly attributed to the prevailing formation of γ form crystal. Complex melting behaviors were observed for neat PA 6 and the nanocomposites. These complex behaviors are associated with different polymorphs and the ‘melting-recrystallization-remelting’ phenomenon. Moderate thermal stability enhancement of PA 6 after adding 30B and/or POEMA was confirmed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The storage modulus, Young's modulus and tensile strength of PA 6 were increased after adding 30B. However, these properties declined after further incorporation of POEMA. The different-processed PA 6/30B/POEMA nanocomposites displayed balanced tensile properties and toughness between those of neat PA 6 and PA 6/30B nanocomposite.     

Influence of organo-montomorillonite on mechanical and rheological properties of polyamide nanocomposites

The effect of organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT) on polyamide nanocomposites was studied. OMMT/polyamide nanocomposites were prepared through direct melt compounding on a conventional twin screw extruder. With increasing the loading of OMMT, the Young modulus, elongation at break and tensile strength increased. 1 mass% loading of OMMT/polyamide resulted in 11% increase of the elongation at break compared to virgin polymer, while 4% loading showed 13%. Rheological data like torque, fusion time, viscosity and shear rate were also recorded on Brabender Plasticorder and were correlated with M = CS^a and τ = K(γ)ⁿ. The value n < 1 indicated pseudo-plastic nature of the polyamide/OMMT. The torque decreased with increased loading due to soft nature of OMMT, which acts as a lubricating agent. This improvement in mechanical properties with increase in amount of OMMT loading was also indicated by the reduction in shear viscosity and torque.     

Phase morphology and toughening mechanism of polyamide 6/EPDM-g-MA blends obtained via dynamic packing injection molding

One of the most important findings in polymer-toughening is known as the critical matrix ligament thickness (τ_c) theory, which is directly related to both rubber concentration and average size of particles. All these studies assume that rubber particles are spherical and randomly distributed in the matrix. Rubber particles may be stretched and oriented along the shear flow direction in real processing. In this paper the effect of stretched and oriented rubber particles on the impact strength of PA6/EPDM-g-MA blends have been studied via dynamic packing injection molding (DPIM). The impact strength of specimens obtained by DPIM was found substantially increase at all the blends investigated, compared with the one obtained via conventional injection molding. Particularly, more than 30 kJ m⁻² increase of the impact strength was observed for specimens with a higher rubber content (more than 15 wt%). SEM results showed a remarkably decrease of rubber particle size and more uniform dispersion of the dynamic molded specimens. This can be attributed to the shear induced reaction at the interface between polyamide 6 and EPDM-g-MA during the packing stage. The rubber particles were found stretched along the melt shear flow direction when it is content above 15 wt%. A master curve can be also constructed by plotting the impact strength versus the inter-particle distance, indicating that Wu's criterion still works for blends with stretched and oriented rubber particles when the crack propagation direction is perpendicular to the orientation direction of rubber particles. The observed higher impact strength in dynamic specimens could be due to, in part, the enhanced flexural stiffness, which will absorb more energy during impact process when the fracture of IZOD bars is incomplete, but more importantly due to the existence of the stretched and oriented rubber particles, which are more efficient in slowing the velocity of crack propagation and thus cause higher impact resistance when the fracture propagation direction is perpendicular to the rubber oriented direction.     

Effects of acid- and diamine-modified MWNTs on the mechanical properties and crystallization behavior of polyamide 6

The acid- and diamine-modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes were characterized by XPS, apparent density test and SEM. Their effects on the mechanical properties and crystallization behavior of polyamide 6 (PA6) were comparatively investigated via SEM, DMA, tensile test and DSC. It was revealed that acid treatment could effectively induce polar oxygen-containing groups on the surface of MWNTs, which was beneficial for MWNTs to combine with polar PA6 matrix. However, the interactions such as the hydrogen bonds among the acid-modified MWNTs caused a compact stacking morphology, resulting in a worse dispersion in PA6 matrix. Further diamine modification on the acid-modified MWNTs could graft diamine molecules onto the surface of MWNTs, which weakened the interactions among the MWNTs and thus resulted in a less compact stacking morphology compared with acid-modified MWNTs. Therefore, a better dispersion and a stronger interfacial adhesion of MWNTs in PA6 matrix could be obtained with diamine-modified MWNTs. The storage modulus, glass transition temperature, yield strength, Young's modulus and crystallization temperature of PA6 were found to be improved significantly by the incorporation of diamine-modified MWNTs.     

Morphology and mechanical properties of PA6/organoclay nanocomposites toughened by bulk rubber and core-shell rubber

Reactive bulk rubber (EOR-g-MA) and reactive core-shell rubber (ABS-g-MA) are selected as toughening agents to toughen PA6 nanocomposites. The two blends are designed with 20?wt-% rubber phase and 3?wt-% organoclay. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the degree of exfoliation of organoclays and morphology of the nanocomposites. The organoclay platelets are well exfoliated in the nanocomposites. At the same time, the size of the elastomer particles and interfacial adhesion between polyamide 6 and elastomers are dramatically affected by the existence of organoclay. ABS-g-MA is found to promote the toughness efficiency of PA6 than does EOR-g-MA, which reveals higher impact strength and elongation at break. However, tensile strength and Young's modulus of PA6 blends based on EOR-g-MA elastomer are higher than those based on ABS-g-MA elastomer.     

Properties of polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites processed by low cost bentonite and different organic modifiers

Nanocomposites based on polyamide 6 have been directly prepared by melt compounding, using modified low cost bentonites by three selected quaternary ammonium cations, in particular quaternized octadecylamine (ODA), dimethyl benzyl hydrogenated tallow quaternary ammonium (B2MTH) and dimethyl hydrogenated ditallow quaternary ammonium (2M2TH). Thermal stability of organic modifiers and organoclays has been studied by TGA and results allow evaluating the degree of modifier incorporation into clay galleries. The influence of the organic modifier on the morphology and properties of the obtained nanocomposites has been studied by X-ray diffraction and TEM analysis. Depending on the degree of bentonite modification, different mechanisms were reported to explain the improved mechanical properties of the resulting nanocomposites.     

Polymorphism in polyamide 66/clay nanocomposites

Polyamide 66/clay nanocomposites (PA66CN) were prepared via melt compounding method by using a new kind of organophilic clay, which was obtained through co-intercalation of epoxy resin and quaternary ammonium into Na-montmorillonite. The silicate layers were dispersed homogeneously and nearly exfoliated in polyamide 66 (PA66) matrix. The introduction of silicate layers induced the appearance of the γ phase in PA66CN at room temperature, more clay loadings would amplify this phenomenon; the addition of clay also changed the structure of the α crystalline phase. The presence of silicate layers increased the crystallization rate and had a strong hetero phase nucleation effect on PA66 matrix. The lower Brill transition temperature of PA66CN can be attributed to the strong interaction between polyamide chains and surfaces of silicate layers.     

The effect of organoclay on the mechanical properties and morphology of injection‐molded polyamide 6/polypropylene nanocomposites

Nanocomposites containing a thermoplastic blend and organophilic layered clay (organoclay) were produced by melt compounding. The blend composition was kept constant [polyamide 6 (PA6) 70 wt % + polypropylene (PP) 30 wt %], whereas the organoclay content was varied between 0 and 10 wt %. The mechanical properties of the nanocomposites were determined on injection‐molded specimens in both tensile and flexural loading. Highest strength values were observed at an organoclay content of 4 wt % for the blends. The flexural strength was superior to the tensile one, which was traced to the effect of the molding‐induced skin‐core structure. Increasing organoclay amount resulted in severe material embrittlement reflected in a drop of both strength and strain values. The morphology of the nanocomposites was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy‐dispersion X‐ray analysis (EDX), and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). It was established that the organoclay is well dispersed (exfoliated) and preferentially embedded in the PA6 phase. Further, the exfoliation degree of the organoclay decreased with increasing organoclay content. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 91: 175–189, 2004     

Novel nanostructured polyamide 6/fluoroelastomer thermoplastic elastomeric blends: Influence of interaction and morphology on physical properties

Novel polyamide 6 (PA6)/fluoroelastomer nanostructured thermoplastic elastomeric blends were developed in the present work. The influence of interaction between the components and morphology on physical properties of the blends was analyzed. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy studies, solubility and theoretical analysis of complex modulus clearly indicated that PA6 was the continuous matrix in which fluorocarbon elastomer was present in nanoscale. Low torque ratio (0.34) of rubber/plastic, high mixing speed and long mixing time had an important role in developing the nanostructured morphology of the blend. Tensile strength of the thermoplastic elastomer was about 39.0 MPa which was much higher than that reported earlier and showed significant improvement with increasing PA6 content. Large shifting of the glass transition temperature of the rubber and the plastic phases towards the lower temperature compared to those pristine polymers was also observed. The above properties were explained with the help of interaction between the components and morphology.     

Influence of organoclay and preparation technique on the morphology of polyamide6/polystyrene/organoclay nanocomposites

To have an improved insight about the compatibilization effect of organoclay on immiscible polymers, two different organoclays and preparation techniques were chosen to prepare polyamide6 (PA6)/polystyrene (PS)/organoclay ternary nanocomposites. The morphology analysis based on the results of X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the type of organoclay and preparation technique had a significant influence on the dispersion and distribution of organoclay in the polymer. It was concluded that blending PS/organoclay nanocomposite synthesized previously via in situ bulk polymerization, with PA6 can realize the full exfoliation of organoclay in the final ternarynanocomposite, while an intercalated structure was achieved by directly blending the three components. The distribution of organoclay could be controlled by tuning the surface property of clay, and hence the interfacial interaction between clay and the polymer matrix. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Effects of swelling agents on the crystallization behavior and mechanical properties of polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites

Montomorillonite was organically modified with three different swelling agents: n‐dodecylamine, 12‐aminolauric acid, and 1,12‐diaminodecane. These organoclays and polyamide 6 (PA6) were blended in a formic acid solution. X‐ray diffraction analysis showed that the clay still retained its layer structure in the PA6/clay nanocomposite. Consequently, these materials were intercalated nanocomposites. The effects of the swelling agent and organoclay content on the crystallization behavior of the PA6/clay nanocomposites were studied with differential scanning calorimetry. The results showed that the position and width of the exothermic peak of the PA6/clay nanocomposites were changed during the nonisothermal crystallization process. The clay behaved as a nucleating agent and enhanced the crystallization rate of PA6.The crystallinity of PA6 decreased with an increasing clay content. Different swelling agents also affected the crystallization behavior of PA6. The effects of the type and content of the swelling agent on the tensile and flexural properties of PA6/clay nanocomposites were also investigated. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 88: 1686–1693, 2003     

Co-continuous and encapsulated three phase morphologies in uncompatibilized and reactively compatibilized polyamide 6/polypropylene/polystyrene ternary blends using two reactive precursors

Phase morphology development in ternary uncompatibilized and reactively compatibilized blends based on polyamide 6 (PA6), polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) has been investigated. Reactive compatibilization of the blends has been performed using two reactive precursors; maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA) and styrene maleic anhydride copolymer (SMA) for PA6/PP and PA6/PS pairs, respectively. For comparison purposes, uncompatibilized and reactively compatibilized PA6/PP and PA6/PS binary blends, were first investigated. All the blends were melt-blended using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder. The phase morphology investigated using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and selective solvent extraction tests revealed that PA6/PP/PS blends having a weight percent composition of 70/15/15 is constituted from polyamide 6 matrix in which are dispersed composite droplets of PP core encapsulated by PS phase. Whereas, a co-continuous three-phase morphology was formed in the blends having a composition of 40/30/30. This morphology has been significantly affected by the reactive compatibilization. In the compatibilized PA6/(PP/PP–MA)/(PS/SMA) blends, PA6 phase was no more continuous but gets finely dispersed in the PS continuous phase. The DSC measurements confirmed the dispersed character of the PA6 phase. Indeed, in the compatibilized PA6/(PP/PP–MA)/(PS/SMA) blends where the PA6 particle size was smaller than 1 μm, the bulk crystallization temperature of PA6 (188 °C) was completely suppressed and a new crystallization peak emerges at a lower temperature of 93 °C as a result of homogeneous nucleation of PA6.     

Effect of clay on the morphology of blends of poly(propylene) and polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites

PP/NPA6 blends composed of poly(propylene) (PP) and polyamide 6/clay nanocomposites (NPA6) were prepared by twin‐screw extrusion and melt‐drawn into ribbons by a ribbon extrusion process. The influence of clay on the morphology of PP/NPA6 ribbons was investigated by means of field‐emission scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy. The results show that at low clay content (3, 5 wt%), NPA6 exhibited continuous lamellar structure in PP as pristine PA6 did in a PP/PA6 blend, but at a higher clay content (10 wt%) only ellipsoids or elongated ellipsoids were observed. In order to explain the morphological difference, two factors, ie the compatibilization effect and melt rheology, have been taken into consideration. It has been found that both factors, and probably mainly the variation in melt rheology, were responsible for the morphological difference in the PP/NPA6 blends with different clay contents under the extensional flow field. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Flame retardant mechanism of polyamide 6-clay nanocomposites

The thermal and flammability properties of polyamide 6/clay (2 and 5% by mass fraction) nanocomposites were measured to determine their flame retardant (FR) performance. The gasification process of the nanocomposite samples at an external radiant flux of 50 kW/m² in a nitrogen atmosphere was observed, and the residues collected at various sample mass losses were analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction to determine the content of the residue and to understand the FR mechanism of the nanocomposites. The analysis of the floccules of blackened residues shows that up to 80% by mass of the residues consists of clay particles and the remainder is thermally stable organic components with possible graphitic structure. Furthermore, clay particles are stacked in the carbonaceous floccule residues and the d-spacing of the clay platelets is in the range of 1.3-1.4 nm as compared to the well exfoliated original sample. The accumulation of the initially well-dispersed clay particles in the sample on the burning/gasifying sample surface are due to two possible mechanisms. One is recession of the polymer resin from the surface by pyrolysis with the de-wetted clay particles left behind. Another mechanism is the transportation of clay particles pushed by numerous rising bubbles of degradation products and the associated convection flow in the melt from the interior of the sample toward the sample surface. Numerous rising bubbles may have another effect on the transport of clay particles. Bursting of the bubbles at the sample surface pushes the accumulated clay particles outward from the bursting area and forms the island-like floccules instead of forming a continuous net-like structure of a clay filled protective layer. Therefore, both PA6/clay nanocomposite samples did not produce sufficient amounts of protective floccules to cover the entire sample surface and vigorous bubbling was observed over the sample surface which was not covered by the protective floccules.     

Influence of thermal processing on the perfection of crystals in polyamide 66 and polyamide 66/clay nanocomposites

A study of the changes in crystal perfection of polyamide 66 (PA66) and polyamide 66/clay nanocomposites (PA66CN) due to different thermal processing was carried out. We designed three series of thermal processing including melt-quench (MQ), post-annealing MQ sample (MQA), and melt–slow cooling–annealing (MSA). The annealing temperature was set as 180 or 210 °C, which is within Brill temperature range of PA66. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) were employed to characterize the perfection in short-range order and long-range order structures, respectively. The results showed that the crystal perfection of PA66 and PA66CN with different thermal processing is quite different, and the changing fashions with thermal processing for different ordered structures are not similar. In this work, MSA is optimal thermal processing for high crystallinity and crystal perfection. Exfoliated nanoclay layers exert considerable impact on the perfection of long-range ordered structures, but little on that of short-range ordered ones.     

Effect of clay treatment on structure and mechanical behavior of elastomer-containing polyamide 6 nanocomposite

The effect of clay organophilization on mechanical behavior and structure of PA6/EPR blends was studied. It has been shown that the modification of clay affected simultaneously the degree of PA6 matrix reinforcement, size and structure of dispersed EPR. The localization of clay with less polar treatment in the interfacial area brought an important new effect consisting intensification of toughening effect of dispersed elastomer by formation of “core-shell” particles. Basic aspects governing formation of this advantageous structure are reported.The best balanced mechanical behavior was achieved when combining two differently modified clays, whereas the clay with less polar treatment is preblended with EPR. In this way, a high degree of matrix reinforcement (exfoliation of clay with more polar treatment) was combined with favorable size and structure of dispersed EPR phase. Additionally, at lower clay content, synergy between clay and elastomer phase, monitoring itself by enhancement of toughness, was found.     

Preparation and characterization of polyimide/organoclay nanocomposites

Organically modified montmorrillonite clay, containing a long chain aliphatic quarternary ammonium cation, was used to prepare polyimide/organoclay hybrids. Several approaches were examined in an attempt to achieve fully exfoliated nanocomposites. These included simple mixing of the clay in a pre-made high molecular weight poly(amide acid) solution; simple mixing followed by sonication of the organoclay/poly(amide acid) solutions; and the preparation of high molecular weight poly(amide acid)s in the presence of the organoclay dispersed in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP). The best results were obtained using the in-situ polymerization approach. The resulting nanocomposite films (both amide acid and imide), containing 3-8% by weight of organoclay, were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thin film tensile properties. A significant degree of dispersion was observed in the nanocomposite films of the amide acid and the imide. After thermal treatment of amide acid films to effect imidization, in both air and nitrogen, the films were visually darker than control films without clay and the level of clay dispersion appeared to have decreased. In the latter case, the separation between the layers of the clay decreased to a spacing less than that present in the original organoclay. These observations suggest that thermal degradation of the aliphatic quarternary ammonium cation occurred likely during thermal treatment to effect imidization and solvent removal. These thermal degradation effects were less pronounced when thermal treatment was performed under nitrogen. The polyimide/organoclay hybrid films exhibited higher room temperature tensile moduli and lower strength and elongation to break than the control films.