Measurement of space charge distribution in epoxy resin

Internal space charge behavior of insulating materials has recently attracted attention of many researchers, and a large number of experimental studies were carried out by using the materials for dc cables, such as XLPE, LDPE, and HDPE. Epoxy resins are used for insulation under strong electric fields in power apparatus and in electronic devices, and we investigated the behavior of internal space charge using the pulsed electroacoustic method. Two types of epoxy resins were studied: insulation-grade and craft-grade. When dc electric fields were applied to the craft resins treated by immersing them into room-temperature water for 8 and 24 h, positive and negative charges accumulated near the anode and the cathode, respectively, and the charge distribution changed with the immersion time. On the other hand, no charge was observed in the insulation-grade epoxy resin. Next, we treated the samples by immersing them into 100 °C water for 8 h. When the sample was treated for 8 h, hetero charge distribution, which means positive charges near the cathode and negative charges near the anode, was observed. This result is consistent with a previous paper reporting that by chemical analysis, secondary decomposition had occurred. These results show that water and temperature influence the internal space charge behavior of epoxy resins. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 129(3): 9–16, 1999     

固体绝缘材料空间及表面电荷测量方法

积聚电荷的测量对于研究高压绝缘材料介电及绝缘性能方面起着相当重要的作用。近年来,国内外学者对固体绝缘材料内部及表面电荷测量方法进行了大量的研究,并取得了一些有意义的进展。本文对积聚在固体绝缘介质中的空间电荷和表面电荷的测量方法以及需要解决的问题进行综述。     

High‐sensitivity PEA system with dual‐polarity pulse generator

The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method has been widely used to observe space charge distributions in various solid dielectric materials. The sensitivity of the conventional PEA system is around 1C/m³. When the charge density is less than 1C/m³, however, it is difficult to obtain an accurate result because the signal due to the Maxwell stress becomes comparable with the signal to be measured. The Maxwell stress is generated by applying the pulsed electric field to the dielectrics, and independent from the existence of either induced charges by DC bias voltage or internal charges. In order to eliminate the influence of the Maxwell stress, we have developed a new PEA system with a dual‐polarity pulse generator. The system allows measurement space at a charge density of around 0.03C/m³. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 166(2): 1– 7, 2009; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.20496     

聚乙烯表面形貌对其空间电荷特性的影响

随着空间电荷测量技术在最近三十年的巨大进步,固体电介质空间电荷研究成为研究热点.聚乙烯的热压冷却条件会显著影响聚乙烯的形态结构.而聚乙烯在热压过程中,其表面会由于不同的基底材料而形成不同的附生结晶层,从而具有不同的表面形貌.此附生层的形态对空间电荷特性有很大的影响.通过研究聚乙烯不同表面形貌的形成过程及其显微特征,并结合微观形态对不同表面形貌的聚乙烯进行了空间电荷测量分析,发现不同表面形貌的聚乙烯试样具有不同的空间电荷积聚特性.     

Recent developments in the pressure wave propagation method - [Feature Article]

Performing measurements is an essential part of understanding physical phenomena. Hence, numerous measuring techniques have been developed to study space charge build-up in dielectrics. This macroscopic accumulation of charge modifies the electric field and can lead to aging and premature failure of electrical insulation. On the other hand, charge accumulation is essential to the operation of devices such as electret- or piezoelectric-based sensors. It is therefore essential to study charge build-up in order to design insulating materials in which excessive charge does not accumulate, or electrets in which a sufficiently large amount of charge accumulates to ensure adequate device operation, and the stability of that charge in time is sufficient to ensure an acceptable device life-time. This paper focuses on the measurement method using a pressure wave to perturb the charges. That method is commonly called the pressure-wave-propagation (PWP) method. A pressure wave enters the sample through one of its interfaces. As it travels through the material at the velocity of sound, the charges encountered are mechanically displaced.     

Electrical aging and life models: the role of space charge

This paper has the aim of providing a view of a lively debated topic which has broad impact on the design of electrical apparatus and new insulating materials, that is, the interaction between space charge and aging processes of polymeric insulation. Aging models developed in recent decades that consider explicitly or implicitly the contribution of space charge to insulation degradation, under both DC and AC voltage, are dealt with, with the intention to point out their range of validity. Some conventional phenomenological models that have been used for much more than two decades without referring to space charges can be exploited to account for electrical field and activation energy modification due to space charge. These, together with models conceived considering space charges as the driving force for aging, are especially examined. In addition, recent models that disregard the action of space charge as an ageing factor, but consider space charge as the consequence of degradation processes are also discussed.     

电声脉冲法中脉冲对空间电荷分布测量的影响

首先阐述了目前已广泛应用的电声脉冲法(PEA)测量电介质中空间电荷的原理,介绍了一台新型的PEA空间电荷测量装置(其电脉冲幅值和宽度可调),并利用此装置在相同的测试条件下测量了相同的试样。研究发现:对固定厚度的传感器来讲,空间电荷分布信号随脉冲幅值增加而增加,且其波形随脉冲宽度增加而展宽和增强。最后根据PEA测量空间电荷的原理合理分析了上述的现象。     

Corona power loss determination on multi-phase power transmission lines

This paper presents a method to calculate the corona power loss and the ground-level electric field values for three- and six-phase power transmission lines. The charge simulation technique is applied in which the surface charge on the stressed conductors as well as the space charge around each conductor are represented by two discrete sets of unknown infinite line charges. Satisfying properly chosen boundary conditions at the transmission-line conductor surfaces results in a system of linear algebraic equations whose solution evaluates the unknown line charges. The emission of ions from a conductor surface is assumed to take place when the magnitude of the charge simulating its surface charge exceeds an onset value based on a pre-defined corona onset field value for both positive and negative half cycles. The simulation space line charges are displaced back and forth to the conductor by the action of the electric field whose magnitude and direction depend on the simulation charges in the conductor and in the surrounding space. Recombination process takes place whenever charges of opposite polarities meet together. The calculated corona power loss for three-phase power transmission lines agreed satisfactorily with those reported earlier, and for the first time, the six-phase corona power loss will be presented.     

High-resolution PEA charge distribution measurement system

The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method is widely known to be an excellent method for measuring the space charge distribution that accumulates in thick dielectric materials (1 to 5 mm). We have refined the PEA measurement system for use on thin dielectric materials. With FFT deconvolution to compensate for the frequency characteristics of the piezoelectric sensor, the resolution in the depth direction is improved to ~3 μm. This improved system is thus expected to be useful for the quantitative and nondestructive measurement of the space charge distribution in dielectric films     

Electronic and defect processes in oxides. The polaron in action

The basic processes involving space charge are charge localization (including trapping) and charge transport. These processes may be associated with energy localization. At the molecular scale, energy localization is an initiator of electrical breakdown and aging phenomena. At the mesoscopic scale, energy localization generates the damage observed macroscopically and is associated with discharge. Processes on one length scale determine behavior on another scale, Most applications concentrate on macroscopic space charge, yet processes on the atomic scale determine the build-up and consequences of space charge. In non-metals, one key concept is that of self-trapping (formation of small polarons). This survey discusses the phenomenon of self-trapping and its effects on charge transport, charge trapping, and the measurement of localized charges. Most examples will relate to oxides, including bulk transition metal oxides, oxide interfaces, thin layers of oxide on silicon, and laser- and radiation-induced charges in alumina. The paper also links some of the ideas to the outstanding problems in the generation of space charge, including contact charging, tribocharging, and impact charging     

Electroluminescence measurements to detect accumulated charge atthe electrode-insulator interface

Electroluminescence (EL) spectrum analysis is proposed to detect charge accumulation in insulators. The objective is to find the nature of accumulated space charges at the electrode-insulator interface by using only EL measurements recorded under a moderate ac 50 Hz field. The differences between spectra obtained with virgin samples and treated samples are analyzed. Some experience obtained with 500 μm thick low-density polyethylene (LDPE) samples are described to illustrate the expected modification of the EL spectrum vs, interfacial space charges. Direct space charge measurements, using the laser induced pressure propagation (LIPP) method are used to verify our assumptions. Good agreement is found between EL analysis and experimental data of space charges     

Dielectric material properties investigated through space charge measurements

This paper investigates means of exploitation of space charge measurement results in order to achieve information about chemical, physical and microstructural properties of dielectric materials. The derivation of quantities as mean volume density of space charge, threshold for DC space charge accumulation, apparent-trap controlled mobility is discussed and various applications to dielectric materials are shown. In particular, the differences of trapping behavior of polyethylene-based materials, as low-density polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene and high-density polyethylene, the effect of additives containing polar groups, the evaluation of cellular polymeric electrets are discussed on the basis of the results of space charge measurements and the relevant extracted quantities.     

脉冲电声法空间电荷测量波形恢复的数据处理

采用脉冲电声法（PEA）测量固体电介质中空间电荷的分布时，由于受介质特性和系统硬件的影响，测量波形会发生畸变。文中用高斯函数模拟低场强下界面电荷波形衰减前后峰形的变化，建立了波形衰减模型。把介质的衰减因子看作一个传导矩阵，获得了恢复整个介质中空间电荷分布曲线的方程式。通过对信号在介质和放大器中传输过程的分析和建模，以Matlab软件对实测波形进行了恢复。结果表明：在电荷分布波形中电极A处的峰值可恢复到90％，而且被掩盖的异极性电荷得以显现。     

Electrodes and charge injection in low-density polyethylene usingthe pulsed electroacoustic technique

The effects of electrode materials on space charge formation in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) have been investigated experimentally using the pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) technique. Common electrode materials used in either the laboratory or power cable industry were selected, i.e. aluminum, gold and carbon loaded crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE), and space charge accumulation after the application of high electric stress was monitored. Experimental results demonstrated that charge injection processes take place in all cases once the applied stress has exceeded a threshold. However the amount of charge, and the polarity of the dominant injected charges showed a significant dependence on the electrode materials under the same applied electric stress     

Factors of hetero space charge generation in XLPE under dc electric field of 20 kV/mm

This report deals with the mechanism of space charge accumulation in cross‐linked polyethylene (XLPE) under dc electric field. Space charge was measured by the pulsed‐electroacoustic method with applying dc stress of 20 kV/mm. A large amount of hetero space charge accumulated in fresh XLPE samples. Factors influencing the space charge accumulation were analyzed in regard to cross‐linking by‐products and antioxidant. No space charge was seen when the fresh sample was degassed to remove cross‐linking by‐products. Introducing acetophenone, one of the cross‐linking by‐products, in a degassed sample produces no space charge, suggesting that acetophenone itself could not be the direct factor of space charge formation. However, heating this sample up to 150 °C results in formation of hetero space charges as in virgin samples. Hence, it is concluded that hetero space charges may be formed when impurities, such as an antioxidant, dissociate thermally with the help of acetophenone and that the dissociated products are attracted toward both electrodes under a dc field to form the hetero space charges. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 129(2): 13–21, 1999     

Investigating dc polyethylene threshold by space charge. Currentand electroluminescence measurements

It has been proposed recently that the lowest level of dc field, above which electrical degradation may occur, is associated with the formation of space charges in insulation. Therefore, inference of field levels above which space charge accumulates in a given material may provide fundamental information for material characterization and system design. Threshold field values were estimated through evidence of space charge accumulation derived from conduction current, space charge amplitude and electroluminescence (EL) counts vs, electrical field characteristics. Press-molded plates of polyethylene-based materials were used for this investigation. In order to be able to detect even by EL experiments the presence of the space charge accumulated at low fields, measurements were carried out during both polarization and short-circuit of specimens. It is shown that the threshold corresponding to the onset of EL upon grounding the specimen is close to the space charge accumulation threshold derived from space charge and conduction current measurements. This earlier value is considerably lower than the one previously detected from constant dc-voltage EL measurements, thus confirming that even at low fields and in the presence of voltage reversals or transients, space charges can trigger luminescence phenomena. The methodology developed in this paper enlarges the applicability of the EL technique to accommodate a wider electrical field range in view of insulation characterization     

电晕笼交流单根导线电晕损失的计算分析

电晕损失是导线电晕特性研究的重要内容之一。为了建立电晕笼内导线电晕损失的计算模型,将模拟电荷法应用于电晕笼内导线电晕损失计算。采用线电荷模拟交流导线,对正方型截面笼壁分别作镜像处理。当导线模拟电荷量超过起晕电荷量时,分别计算导线上每个模拟电荷点向空间发射的电荷量。考虑空间电荷的影响,计算电晕笼空间的合成电场。仿真模拟电荷发射、迁移、复合过程,计算电晕笼中空间电荷运动,计算迁移过程中电荷运动产生的能量损失。进行电晕笼单根光滑导线、单根钢芯铝绞线LGJ—300/40、单根钢芯铝绞线LGJ—400/35电晕损失测量试验。仿真结果与试验结果对比,结果基本一致。因此采用模拟电荷法能够较好地建立电晕笼内单根导线电晕损失的计算模型。     

纳米MgO掺杂聚乙烯中空间电荷行为的研究

介绍了采用电声脉冲法测量纯低密度聚乙烯以及氧化镁／低密度聚乙烯（MgO／LDPE）纳米复合介质中的空间电荷,讨论了不同含量的MgO以及不同型号LDPE作为基础材料对复合介质内空间电荷分布的影响。实验结果表明：随着直流电场的增加,在纯聚乙烯中产生电荷注入现象,且随着加压时间的增加,注入的同极性电荷有向另一电极移动的趋势。少量的MgO可以有效抑制复合介质中的空间电荷注入,随着MgO含量的增加,对复合介质的空间电荷注入抑制效果逐渐减弱。     

超/特高压交流输电线路电晕损失的数值仿真研究

电晕决定输电线路的电磁环境特性。采用模拟电荷法计算交流输电线路的电晕损失,交流导线用多根线电荷表示,导线表面场强超过起晕场强时令一定量电荷由导线表面发射到空间中。将交流周期分为若干时段,在每一时刻都考虑了导线表面电荷发射、空间电荷运动、空间电荷复合等效应,重复计算若干周期直至离子流场稳定。在已有方法的基础上改进了起晕条件和电荷发射的计算方法,考虑了导线表面电场不均匀性对电晕放电的影响,从而可以对多相多分裂导线离子流场进行仿真计算,进而计算得到线路电晕损失。对三相8分裂特高压交流线路电晕损失计算结果与试验结果有较好的一致性。     

直流XLPE电缆绝缘中空间电荷的抑制方法综述

交联聚乙烯(XLPE)因其优异的介电、理化性能而被广泛应用于电缆绝缘领域。在电缆的服役过程中,电缆绝缘内部会积聚空间电荷,严重时可引发电场畸变,导致电缆击穿事故发生。对于直流XLPE电缆,空间电荷的积聚及影响更加不容忽视。针对直流XLPE电缆绝缘中产生的空间电荷积聚效应,目前学界主要采用共混改性、聚合物链段接枝极性基团、纳米掺杂改性及制备高纯净绝缘料等方法来进行控制,改性后的直流XLPE电缆绝缘对空间电荷产生的抑制效果均有所提升。文中首先对上述直流XLPE电缆绝缘中空间电荷的抑制方法进行综述,介绍其抑制原理以及相应的抑制效果,然后对比总结不同抑制空间电荷方法的优缺点,最后对未来直流XLPE电缆绝缘中空间电荷抑制方法的研究发展作出展望。