Fat-borne volatiles and sheepmeat odour

The effects of lamb age and diet on volatiles from fat are described. Rendered fat from ram lambs raised on ewe's milk then a corn-based diet was compared with that from lambs raised on milk and a pasture of grass/clover, six treatments in all. An additional treatment comprised very old ewes maintained on pasture. Helium-borne volatiles of rendered fat were resolved on a DB5 gas chromatographic column and the mass spectra obtained. Long chain alka(e)nes like neophytadiene were dominant in pasture treatments especially where the lamb growth rate was slow. Branch chain fatty acids (4-methyloctanoic, 4-methylnonanoic and an unidentified acid) were also highest in these treatments. Longer chain aldehydes like 2-undecenal were good indicators of a grain diet. Hexanal, commonly associated with rancid odours, was unaffected by treatment. The diketone 2,3-octanedione was an excellent indicator of a pasture diet, as was 3-methylindole (skatole). Phenols showed complex relationships to treatments, but were generally more common in pasture treatments. Benzenethiol (thiophenol) was unaffected by treatment. Inspection of principal component analysis plots identified 10 volatile compounds as contenders for the cause of sheepmeat odour; branch chain fatty acids were confirmed as the leading chemical class. There were indications that puberty or age caused an increase in the odorous 4-methylnonanoic acid. Animal odour-the odour of confined livestock-was clearly causally linked to 3-methylindole, a rumen breakdown product of tryptophan. 3-Methylindole was also responsible for rancid odour, rather than hexanal and its analogues. A hypothesis is advanced that links 2,3-octanedione formation to the enzyme lipoxygenase and linolenic acid, both abundant in green leafy tissue. Overall, the data confirm that sheepmeat odour/flavour is specifically linked to the branch chain fatty acids, and is probably exacerbated by pasture-derived 3-methylindole and alkyl phenols.     

Influence of fresh alfalfa supplementation on fat skatole and indole concentration and chop odour and flavour in lambs grazing a cocksfoot pasture

We investigated the influence of the level of fresh alfalfa supplementation on fat skatole and indole concentration and chop sensory attributes in grazing lambs. Four groups of nine male Romane lambs grazing a cocksfoot pasture were supplemented with various levels of alfalfa for at least 60 days before slaughter. Perirenal fat skatole concentration was higher for lambs that consumed alfalfa than for those that consumed only cocksfoot. The intensity of ‘animal’ odour in the lean part of the chop and of ‘animal’ flavour in both the lean and fat parts of the chop, evaluated by a trained sensory panel, increased from the lowest level of alfalfa supplementation onwards and did not increase further with increasing levels of alfalfa supplementation. The outcome of this study therefore suggests that these sensory attributes may reach a plateau when perirenal fat skatole concentration is in the range 0.16–0.24 μg/g of liquid fat.     

Influence of pasture species on the flavour, odour and keeping quality of lamb and mutton

Lambs fed white clover species (Trifolium repens cv. Grasslands Huia or cv. Grasslands 4700) showed a stronger flavour in the fat and lean and a greater intensity of odour in the casseroled 12th rib chop than lambs fed on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). The results for hoggets generally supported those for lambs. Differences in flavour of the lean of the lambs appeared within three weeks from the beginning of the experiment. Differences in intensity of flavour and odour between the shoulder, loin and leg of the hoggets were small. After storage for 8 months at —15°, the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values of the lean and fat of the 12th rib chop were highly significantly greater in lambs fed white clover than in those fed perennial ryegrass. Similar differences were found in hoggets using carcasses that had been stored for one to two months. In the hoggets, significantly higher TBA values were found in the fatty tissues of the leg than in the loin and shoulder. Differences between the TBA values of the lean were not significant.     

Odour–taste interactions: A way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions

This study investigated odour–saltiness interactions in aqueous solutions. In a first experiment, 81 consumers indicated expected taste attributes for 86 labels of flavour related to common food items. Panellists were able to rate expected saltiness of food flavour evoked by food written items. Differences in expected saltiness were observed in relation to actual salt content of food. In experiment 2, we selected commercially available aromas corresponding to 14 of the salt-associated flavour labels found in experiment 1. Odour-induced saltiness enhancement was investigated for odours evoked by these aroma water solutions containing or not sodium chloride. Fifty-nine consumers rated odour and taste (bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and sweetness) intensity orthonasally and retronasally. Results showed that expected flavours could induce saltiness and enhance saltiness in solutions containing a low level of sodium chloride through odour-induced changes in taste perception. These results suggest that well selected odours could be used to compensate sodium chloride reduction in food.     

The effect of supplementation of a white clover or perennial ryegrass diet with grape seed extract on indole and skatole metabolism and the sensory characteristics of lamb

Condensed tannin in the form of a grape seed extract (GSE) was dosed to weaned wether lambs fed white clover (WC) or perennial ryegrass (PRG) over a 9‐week period to determine whether the ‘pastoral’ flavour and odour of meat could be altered. The concentrations of the pastoral flavour compounds indole and skatole were determined in the rumen fluid, blood plasma and intermuscular fat. The odour and flavour of fat and meat from the slaughtered lambs was assessed by a trained panel. The rumen fluid and blood plasma concentrations of indole and skatole were higher in those lambs fed WC compared to PRG (P < 0.05) and the overall meat flavour intensity was greater when feeding WC (P < 0.01). The observed concentration of indole and skatole in the fat between WC and PRG feeding treatments was not statistically different. Power analysis indicated that increasing the number of lambs per treatment group from 20 to 65 would result in a higher fat skatole concentration (P < 0.05) being detected in lambs fed WC compared to PRG. Dosing with GSE gave a small reduction in skatole concentration in the rumen fluid and reduced plasma concentration of indole and skatole (P < 0.001). Odour and flavour scores of the fat and meat samples were not particularly high however, dosing with GSE lowered the overall and sweet odour and the sheepy, camphor, faecal and barnyard flavour (P < 0.05). Although the plasma concentration of indole and skatole suggests that GSE reduced indole and skatole formation, the intermittent supply of the GSE to the rumen environment was not sufficient to reduce their concentration in the fat. Hence, the small difference in the scores for pastoral odour and flavour attributes associated with GSE treatment may arise from other unknown factors. From a primary investigation, there was no difference in the concentration of indole and skatole in fat samples collected from carcasses before and after chilling. Further investigations into meat pastoral flavour are warranted through feeding condensed tannin‐containing forages. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of branched-chain fatty acids, 3-methylindole and 4-methylphenol on consumer sensory scores of grilled lamb meat

Tenderness, flavour, overall liking and odour are important components of sheepmeat eating quality. Consumer assessment of these attributes has been made for carcasses from the Information Nucleus Flock (INF) of the Cooperative Research Centre for Sheep Industry Innovation. The concentrations of three branched chain fatty acids, 4-methyloctanoic (MOA), 4-ethyloctanoic (EOA) and 4-methylnonanoic acids (compounds related to ‘mutton flavour’ in cooked sheepmeat) and 3-methylindole and 4-methylphenol (compounds related to ‘pastoral’ flavour) were determined for 178 fat samples taken from INF carcasses. Statistical modelling revealed that both MOA and EOA impacted on the ‘Like Smell’ consumer sensory score of the cooked meat product (P < 0.05), with increasing concentration causing lower consumer acceptance of the product. None of the compounds though had an effect on the liking of flavour. Obviously, reducing the effect of MOA and EOA on the odour of grilled lamb will improve consumer acceptance of the cooked product but other factors affecting the eating quality also need to be considered.     

The effects of antioxidative treatments on mutton flavour/odour intensity and species flavour differentiation

This study examined the effects of curing and oxygen exclusion on the odour and flavour of sheepmeats. One series of experiments examined the effect of curing on the ability of panellists to distinguish between the flavours of lean mince from various species (mutton, beef, pork, chicken). Other experiments examined the effects of curing and of maintaining an anoxic storage/cooking environment on the intensity of mutton flavour and odour, particularly adipose tissue odour. Curing had no effect on panellists' abilities to distinguish between the flavour of mince from different species. Storage and cooking of uncured mutton adipose tissue samples under anoxic conditions limited lipid oxidation but enhanced mutton odour intensity. Nitride had a pro-oxidant effect on mutton adipose tissue stored in air. There was no corresponding effect on mutton odour intensity. These findings suggest that lipid oxidation products contribute very little to mutton odour from adipose tissue, and possibly also to species flavour differences in lean meats.     

Comparison of the volatile composition and sensory characteristics of Spanish PDO cheeses manufactured from ewes’ raw milk and animal rennet

Idiazabal, Manchego, Roncal and Zamorano varieties are the Spanish cheeses manufactured under Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) from ewes’ raw milk and coagulated with animal rennet. Two batches of each cheese variety were ripened for six months and the cheeses were compared for sensory characteristics and composition of volatile compounds. Seventy-six volatile compounds were identified by GC-MS analysis of headspaces of the cheeses. The volatile profile of the four PDO cheeses differed significantly. Acids were the most abundant volatile compounds in Idiazabal, Roncal, and Zamorano cheeses, whereas alcohols were the main volatile compounds in Manchego cheese due to the large percentage of 2-butanol. Aldehydes, ketones and esters were minor compounds in all the cheese varieties, whereas terpenes and unsaturated hydrocarbons were only found in Manchego cheese. The sensory profiles, of the four PDO cheeses also differed significantly. The highest scores for sharp, brine and rennet odours, and rancid and rennet flavours were assessed in Idiazabal and Zamorano cheeses, whereas milky and buttery odour scores were higher in Manchego, Roncal and Zamorano cheeses than in Idiazabal cheese. Principal component analysis was applied to sensory attributes and volatile composition of the cheeses. Differences in flavour and odour attributes were correlated with differences in the volatile compounds. Two principal components correlating sensory attributes and volatile compounds were defined as “strength factor” and “sweetness factor”. The “strength factor” distinguished among the four cheese varieties, except between Roncal and Manchego cheeses, and the “sweetness factor” distinguished the Zamorano cheese from the Idiazabal, Manchego and Roncal cheeses.     

Changes in lipid fractions and sensory properties of Idiazabal cheese induced by lipase addition

This work studied the addition of an adequate lipase to enhance lipolysis reactions and the development of piquant flavour and sharp odour in Idiazabal cheese, as an alternative to the use of lamb rennet paste. Cheeses were manufactured from bulk raw ewes' milk in 50 l vats with commercial bovine rennet and 80 lipase units of pregastric or 180 lipase units of fungal lipase and ripened for 180 days. A higher lipolytic activity was induced by lipase addition promoting strong changes in odour and flavour attributes. Both fungal and pregastric lipases increased the content of total free fatty acids (FFA), but the fungal lipase released mainly medium- and long-chain FFA. In contrast, the pregastric lipase preferably released short-chain FFA. Diglyceride (DG) content was considerably higher in cheeses made with added pregastric lipase compared with those made with fungal lipase or with no lipase. Monoglycerides (MG) were detected only in cheeses made with either lipase added, reaching comparable concentrations after ripening for 180 days. The cheeses made with pregastric lipase had the highest scores for odour and flavour intensity, and sharp and rennet odours, desirable attributes for the Idiazabal cheese made with lamb rennet paste. None of the texture attributes were significantly influenced by the concentrations of MG and DG in the cheeses made with either lipase. Thus, the pregastric lipase was more appropriate than the fungal lipase to develop a more traditionally-flavoured Idiazabal cheese.     

Variations in volatile compounds and flavour in Idiazabal cheese manufactured from ewe's milk in farmhouse and factory

Stage of lactation, use of bulk milk or milk from individual flocks, and cheese‐making in farmhouse or industrial factory are important factors affecting the production and quality of Idiazabal cheese. The volatile composition of cheese samples made from raw ewe's milk in farmhouses or industrial plants at two different times of the year and aged for 90 and 180 days was analysed by dynamic headspace coupled to GC‐MS. Short‐chain fatty acids, primary and secondary alcohols, methyl ketones and ethyl esters were the most abundant compounds in the aroma of Idiazabal cheese samples. Differences in the volatile composition were found between farmhouse and industrial cheeses made at different times of the year and ripened for 90 or 180 days. Likewise, the sensory profiles of the farmhouse and industrial cheeses were significantly different, regardless of the time of the year and ripening time. The results for the principal component analysis (PCA) performed on the sensory attributes of the cheese samples showed two PCs defined as ‘farmhouse flavour factor’ and ‘industrial flavour factor’. Farmhouse cheeses showed high scores for buttery, milky and toasty odours, and buttery and nutty flavours, whereas industrial cheeses showed high scores for sharp, rennet and brine odours, and rennet and rancid flavours. The percentages of methyl ketones such as 3‐hydroxy‐2‐butanone, 2‐butanone, 2‐pentanone and 2‐heptanone, and acids such as n‐propanoic, 2‐methylpropanoic and 3‐methylbutanoic acids were higher in farmhouse cheeses than in industrial cheeses. On the other hand, the percentages of esters such as ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate, and alcohols such as 3‐methyl‐1‐butanol, and acids like n‐hexanoic acid were higher in industrial cheeses than in farmhouse cheeses. Relationships between sensory attributes and volatile compounds were studied on the basis of the differences found in sensory profile and volatile composition between farmhouse and industrial cheeses. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Chemical and sensory profiles of commercial goat cheeses

This study characterised the chemical and sensory properties of 15 non-spreadable goat cheeses (eight fresh and seven ripened). The majority of the cheeses had a short ripening period. Hence, low free fatty acid (FFA) contents were detected. The main difference among the cheeses was the short-chain FFA content, which was higher in the ripened cheeses, and responsible for their distinctive odours and flavours. In both types of cheeses (fresh and ripened), lactic acid was the most abundant organic acid (OA), followed by propionic acid. Hierarchical cluster analysis identified three distinct groups of samples with marked differences in their texture and flavour attributes. The percentage of moisture was positively correlated to sensory attributes such as surface film, solubility, moistness and sourness, and negatively correlated to the firmness and saltiness. No significant correlation was found among sensory attributes and total fat percentage or any of the OAs.     

Fatty acid composition and sensory characteristics of lamb carcasses from Britain and Spain

Fatty acid composition of intramuscular fat in M. Longissimus was measured in four groups of lambs representing two Spanish breeds: Rasa Aragonesa (RA) and Merino (ME) and two British lamb types: the Welsh Mountain breed (WM), whose carcasses were purchased in Spain and typical early lambs (EL) purchased in Britain. The lambs grown in Spain were concentrate fed and slaughtered at a lighter weight and lower age than those grown in Britain. The British lamb carcasses purchased in Spain were of a similar weight to the Spanish lambs but were lighter than the lamb carcasses purchased in Britain. The British lambs were grass fed. Relationships between fatty acid (FA) composition and sensory attributes were examined following sensory testing of all lambs by both British and Spanish taste panels. The production system was shown to be more important than breed in determining FA composition. British lambs had higher percentages, within total fatty acids, of 18:0, 18:3 (n-3) and long chain polyunsaturated n-3 FA and lower percentages of 18:2 (n-6) and long chain polyunsaturated n-6 FA than Spanish lambs. These differences were due to the different feeding systems used. The amounts of these FA in muscle (mg/100 g) were also different between the British and Spanish groups, not only because the British lambs had more total fat. For both taste panels, odour and flavour intensity were positively correlated with the amounts and percentages of 18:0 and 18:3 and negatively correlated with those of 18:2. This was explained by the fact that both panels gave higher odour and flavour intensity scores to the grass-fed British lamb with high 18:3 levels and lower scores to the concentrate-fed Spanish lamb with high 18:2 levels. However, 18:0 and 18:3 were positively correlated with flavour quality and overall appraisal for the British panel and negatively for the Spanish panel. Conversely, 18:2 was a positive contributor to flavour and overall preference for the Spanish panel and was negative for the British panel. The results show that the production system affects muscle fatty acid composition and the flavour of lamb. However, people's preference is determined to a large extent by their past experience.     

Effect of oxidation of frying oil on the sensory value of fried fish fillet

Fresh sunflower seed oil and used oil were compared as media for deep fat frying of cod fillet. The oxidized oil had more rancid, varnish like and intensive fried flavours. Hydroperoxides present in used frying oil were decomposed into benzidine-active compounds. The sample fried in used oil had lower overall sensory quality, especially poorer flavour and odour. The flavour profile of the fried product was modified by oxidation products in used oil as well. The latter profile consisted of significantly more intensive rancid and stale flavours and significantly stronger old meat flavour. In contrast to this, the product fried in fresh oil had slightly stronger meat flavour. There was no difference in the intensity of fish flavour.