Regional transmission organizations: FERC Order 2000

The US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has changed its world. On 20 December 1999, it issued Order 2000, its final rule on regional transmission organizations (RTOs). On 25 February 2000, it followed this with Order 2000-A, which responded to requests for rehearing from many parties with “We meant what we said”, and it also clarified a few fine points. Order 2000 calls for, but does not quite require, companies owning transmission systems to put the grid under the control of RTOs. FERC requires transmission-owning companies under its jurisdiction to file certain papers by late 2000 or early 2001. These papers can be either proposals to form RTOs or progress reports on the development of RTO proposals. RTOs will have sole responsibility for operation and expansion of the transmission system, maintaining short-term reliability, establishing and managing tariffs, and responding to requests for service     

Electric utility transmission policy at the Federal EnergyRegulatory Commission

Transmission policy from the perspective of the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is discussed. A summary is given of the Transmission Task Force's Report to the Commission entitled `Electricity Transmission Realities, Theory and Policy Alternatives'. The background of FERC developments needed to understand the transmission model the Task Force has drawn up is covered     

IEEE Power Engineering Review

This article highlights the significance for US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) orders related to electric utilities, and explains their impact on the US electric utility industry. These orders are direct results of government-enacted laws and range from addressing issues of generator open access to transmission lines to the mitigation of restructuring electric utilities' stranded costs. A brief history and legal foundation of FERC is given, as well as an outline of the major tenets of the orders, which include 888 for open access, 889 for the Open Access Same Time Information System (OASIS), and 2000 for regional transmission organizations (RTO). This article includes the progression of these orders and some of the consequences arising from them, as well as their connectivity to the major Acts of Congress related to electric utility regulation and business structures. The contents of this article reflect the essential knowledge required of utility managers regarding the US government's utility regulatory system and the legal foundations that are shaping the development of electric utilities and the direction of management philosophies and practices.     

Higher old gas prices and the staged deregulation of the US gas industry

Since the passage of the Natural Gas Policy Act (NGPA) of 1978, the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has taken a number of important steps aimed at fostering competition at all levels of the gas industry. With the issuance of Order 451, FERC took the next logical step, eliminating separate price categories for old interstate supplies and establishing a single, higher, and generally above-market price ceiling for this gas. Using a simple model of a gas market with price controls, this paper investigates the general conditions under which the average price of gas may be expected to either rise or fall as a consequence of Order 451. The general conclusion of the paper is that, at least for the US market, the old gas stage of this multi-staged price deregulation should be expected to result in lower average gas prices and greater production.     

The RTO debate [regional transmission organisations]

On 13 May 1999, the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR) on regional transmission organizations (RTOs). RTOs are designed to improve efficiency and equity by removing barriers that impede competitive markets. The major debate is on parameters of the RTOs. This article summarizes what appears to be the main points of contention and observes that a key question is getting little attention: will the RTOs do the job? The debate is centered on the form and function of RTOs. Absent from debate is serious discussion on whether the RTO concept will remove barriers and accomplish FERC's efficiency and equity objectives. Most parties assume that RTOs will be created and are taking positions to protect their commercial interests     

Paying for performance: The role of policy in energy storage deployment

Energy storage has long been viewed as a solution to the growing challenge of intermittent electricity supply. However, energy storage deployment remains limited despite falling costs. One reason for this is current market rules that inadequately compensate storage for the value it can provide. A recent policy change in the United States (FERC Order 755) seeks to rectify this by requiring grid operators to compensate providers of frequency regulation services based on their speed and accuracy. This seemingly subtle change has a beneficial effect for fast-acting storage resources. Using a difference-in-differences method, exploiting the fact the Order covers only a subset of U.S. electricity regions, we find the order increases the likelihood projects are built to provide frequency regulation services by about 37%. While cost barriers remain to widespread storage deployment, our results suggest improving market rules to properly reflect the value of storage can overcome many regulatory barriers impeding investment.     

类热机结构优化特征及其论证

在已有热机构形优化特性以及类热机装置的构形优化特性分析基础上,将类热机模型推广到一般的传输过程模型,通过变分法导出了一般传输过程的构形优化准则,证明了对于线性传输模型,在有限尺寸约束条件下,传输过程（或装置）熵产最小时,传递系数在区域内等分是其基本特征。同时介绍了传输过程的构形优化在类热机装置分析和广义热力学优化理论研究中的应用,初步验证了本文提出的构形优化特征,并简要阐述其应用发展方向。     

An approach to locational marginal price based zonal congestion management in deregulated electricity market

Congestion of transmission line is a vital issue and its management pose a technical challenge in power system deregulation. Congestion occurs in deregulated electricity market when transmission capacity is not sufficient to simultaneously accommodate all constraints of power transmission through a line. Therefore, to manage congestion, a locational marginal price (LMP) based zonal congestion management approach in a deregulated electricity market has been proposed in this paper. As LMP is an economic indicator and its difference between two buses across a transmission line provides the measure of the degree of congestion, therefore, it is efficiently and reliably used in deregulated electricity market for congestion management. This paper utilizes the difference of LMP across a transmission line to categorize various congestion zones in the system. After the identification of congestion zones, distributed generation is optimally placed in most congestion sensitive zones using LMP difference in order to manage congestion. The performance of the proposed methodology has been tested on the IEEE 14-bus system and IEEE 57-bus system.     

Downstream integration of natural gas prices across U.S. states: Evidence from deregulation regime shifts

This study examines the cointegration between city-gate and residential retail natural gas prices at the U.S. state level using monthly data from 1989:1 to 2012:12. Both price series are tested for unit roots using the Harris (2009) procedure to endogenously identify structural breaks related to deregulation associated with FERC Order No. 636. The endogenously determined structural breaks are then used in the Saikkonen and Lütkepohl (2000a, 2000b, 2000c) maximum likelihood approach to test cointegration of the series. Tests show cointegration of the two price series for all 50 states. Estimates of the long-run relationship in the pre- and post-structural break periods result in mixed evidence about the degree of perfect market integration induced by deregulation, although the magnitude and variation of parameters indicate increased integration. A vector error correction model is used to infer causality in the short and long-run dynamics for the pre and post-structural break periods for each state. The post-break period exhibits bidirectional causality in both short and long-run dynamics for all states, an indication of greater downstream integration of the natural gas market.     

110 kV高性能纤维增强复合材料输电杆塔设计

为研究经济型的输电线路,提出了一种新型高性能纤维增强复合材料(FRP)输电杆塔,根据国家电网公司输变电工程典型设计中110kV钢管类的设计条件,结合FRP材料电绝缘特点、气象条件设计了FRP杆塔的结构尺寸,运用有限元软件对其强度、变形等性能指标进行验算,并针对材料弹性模量特点比较了4种常规截面,选定圆环内接三角肋截面为最优方案。与传统电杆比较分析表明,该结构尺寸的FRP电杆适用于110kV输电线路,具有显著的社会效益和经济效益。     

The effect of ethanol policies on the vertical price transmission in corn and food markets

This paper analyzes the impact of ethanol policies on price transmission along the food supply chain. We consider the US corn sector and its vertical links with food and ethanol (energy) markets. We find that ethanol is a source of imperfect price transmission in the food supply chain. Ethanol, however, alters price transmission only under a binding blender's tax credit and only from food to corn (not vice versa). Our results indicate that ethanol weakens the response of corn and food prices in terms of their level changes to shocks occurring in agricultural (corn and food) markets. The results are robust to different assumptions on the model parameters. Although market power has previously been identified as a source of imperfect price transmission in the food supply chain, our findings show that in the presence of ethanol, the imperfect price transmission may occur even if markets are perfectly competitive. This warrants careful evaluation of markets before any policy intervention.     

The Short-Run Value of Nonutility-Generated Electricity

The Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 and the associated rulings of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) obligate the electric utilities to purchase electricity generated by qualifying facilities at the utility's avoided cost of alternative energy. They include no further indication of how this cost should be calculated and leave the actual implementation to the state's regulatory authorities. In this work, a computer simulation model was developed to study the short-run value of electricity that is generated by private entities and offered for sale to the electric utilities. Using the production simulation theory, the model determines how a set of generation units at different locations can be dispatched in the most economic way to meet a certain electric demand. The model then calculates the short-run value of nonutility-generated electricity by assuming the variable operational costs of electricity production will remain unchanged for any penetration of nonutility power. Several penetration scenarios were simulated using a hypothetical utility case. The short-run value of nonutility-generated electricity was found to increase with increased penetrations up to a maximum level before it starts decreasing as a result of the displacement of intermediate and base load capacity. Moreover, neither of the utility's marginal fuel costs calculated before and after the inclusion of the nonutility resources in the utility generation mix proved to capture the short-run value of the nonutility-generated electricity.     

An agent-based analysis of the German electricity market with transmission capacity constraints

While some agent-based models have been developed for analyzing the German electricity market, there has been little research done on the emerging issue of intra-German congestion and its effects on the bidding behavior of generator agents. Yet, studies of other markets have shown that transmission grid constraints considerably affect strategic behavior in electricity markets. In this paper, the implications of transmission constraints on power markets are analyzed for the case of Germany. Market splitting is applied in the case of congestion in the grid. For this purpose, the agent-based modeling of electricity systems (AMES) market package developed by Sun and Tesfatsion is modified to fit the German context, including a detailed representation of the German high-voltage grid and its interconnections. Implications of transmission constraints on prices and social welfare are analyzed for scenarios that include strategic behavior of market participants and high wind power generation. It can be shown that strategic behavior and transmission constraints are inter-related and may pose severe problems in the future German electricity market.     

Gas insulated transmission lines

Gas-insulated transmission lines (GIL) are a further development of the tubular conductor intended for long distances and are especially suitable for connecting conurbations to centers of power supply. They are also as “invisible” as ordinary power cables as well as having a number of other advantages. The first mixed-gas-insulated power transmission line in the world successfully completed its field trials with an endurance test in early 1999. The most important aim in the further development of tubular conductors for long-distance power transmission was to reduce costs so that they can be used economically over distances of up to several kilometers. This has now been achieved. The system costs of the gas-insulated transmission lines developed by Siemens are now only a factor of 8 or 10 above those of overhead power lines, down from a factor of 30. Now the GIL has reached the order of magnitude to be accepted by utilities if an overhead line must be brought underground. The basis of this reduction in costs was: adaptation of installation techniques similar to those used in laying pipelines; simplification and standardization of individual components; and use of a sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) and nitrogen (N₂ ) gas mixture. In the past, pure SF₆ has been the most widely used gas for tubular conductors, most of which have been incorporated into substations     

Effects of gas-diffusion layer properties on the performance of the cathode for high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

The role of the gas-diffusion layer (GDL) in high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) differs from that in low-temperature PEMFC GDL due to operating conditions and environment. Determining the GDL's structural parameters that affect its transport properties, and how these properties impact HT-PEMFC performance was urgently required. Four commercial GDLs were employed in HT-PEMFC cathode's GDE and was examined using X-μCT, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and an optical microscope to analyze structural parameters and characteristics. Fractal theory was applied to comprehend the gas transmission property of GDL, and the validity of the theory was confirmed through ex-situ through-plane gas permeability measurement. The analysis indicated that the porosity of GDL influenced by the crack region of the MPL has more impact on the GDL's gas transmission than its thickness. After that, we established a correlation between HT-PEMFC cathode performance and GDL porosity and theoretical gas transmission properties using R² coefficient of determination.     

一种经济型故障限流器及其控制策略

提出了一种应用柔性输电技术改善电网电能质量和提高稳定性的经济型短路故障限流器。在输电线路正常运行时,串联在线路中,几乎无能量损耗;当有故障发生时,快速切换到故障限流模式,有效的限制短路电流。分析了这种经济限流器的参数整定及其控制策略,并利用PSCAD和MATLAB软件对其进行了特性分析和电磁暂态稳定性仿真,结果证明了该模型有良好的限流性能和控制策略的可行性。     

Evaluation of optimal UPFC allocation for improving transmission capacity

A unified power flow controller (UPFC) combines the advantages of various flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) devices into a powerful format. Using a 500 kV power grid, this study evaluates the selection and use of a UPFC to improve transmission capacity. The “UPFC unit capacity control proportionality coefficient” is introduced to quantify the control effect of the UPFC, and an optimal calculation method for the UPFC capacity is presented. Following the proposal of a UPFC site selection process, the data of an existing power grid is used to conduct simulations. The simulation results show that the UPFC has a strong ability to improve transmission capacity, and its use is greatly advantageous. Additionally, by applying the proposed selection method, the control effect and economic benefits of the UPFC can be comprehensively considered during project site selection. These findings have a guiding significance for UPFC site selection in ultra-high voltage power grids.     

Transmission expansion in Argentina 1: The origins of policy

As part of its electricity reform, Argentina developed a distinctive policy on transmission expansion. Market participants, rather than the transmission company or the regulator, would determine expansions. Initially, this policy proved controversial and some economists have been critical. This paper explains why it was decided to adopt the policy. The aim was to avoid the inefficiencies and over-expansions of the state-owned era. The solution was to introduce competition wherever possible and to minimise the role for regulation. The existing transmission system already contained several separate but coordinated transmission networks. Users would have the incentive to propose and approve expansions without the need for regulation, and competition was viable for the construction and operation of transmission expansions. The method has been criticised for allocating costs and votes according to usage instead of benefits. However, the method was pragmatic, to take advantage of the existing program for system control, and designed to limit the scope for subjective and unpredictable regulatory judgements. It has merit even where such problems do not apply, as a means of securing outcomes better tailored to the needs of users.     

Conductor selection and economic analysis of D.R. congo–guinea ±800 kV UHVDC transmission project

Africa is embracing new opportunities featured with industrialization, urbanization and regionalization. Based on co-development of ‘Electricity, Mining, Metallurgy, Industry and Trade’ and grids interconnection proposed by Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization (GEIDCO), the high-quality hydropower resource of the Congo River can be exploited in large scale under the wide-range interconnected framework of African Energy Interconnection (AEI), forging a new engine for Africa economy. The transmission distance of the Congo River hydropower reaches 6,000 km at its farthest end in North Africa, which brings forth challenges to economics of proposed projects. Under this novel continental energy interconnection scheme in Africa, economics of those projects have not yet been in detail studied. This paper has implemented China’s mature engineering experiences and analytical tools of UHVDC project planning into the AEI structure, through exploring the economic behavior of ultra-long distance UHVDC projects in the scope of conductor selection in the Congo River hydropower transmission for the first time, and has provided concerned parties with a technical and analytical results of their economics comparison. This paper has chosen the D.R. Congo - Guinea ±800 kV UHVDC project as a typical example. Its preliminary system planning is introduced and three types of conductor are selected for scheme comparison. Later in this paper, the transmission loss, total investment and equivalent annual cost of the project have been calculated and analyzed. In the final part, sensitivity analysis results of the annual cost to utilization hours, transmission loss, loss tariff and construction cost has been provided     

PLC、全数字直流调速器在辊道炉传动系统中的应用

介绍PLC、全数字直流调速器在辊道炉传动系统中的应用,并对系统的硬件配置及其工作原理、软件的参数设置、部分软件框图作了说明。该项改造具有较好的经济效益和社会价值。